Introduction to Conjunctions

This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.

This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.

Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.

Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:

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(1)
Joe dóó Louise hataał.
Joe and Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe and Louise are singing.

The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:

(2)
Joe hataał.
Joe 3-sing.CI
Joe is singing.
(3)
*Joe Louise hataał.
Joe Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe Louise is singing.

Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.

In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:

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(4)
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
Joe and Louise and Kii pl-3-sing.CI
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing.

The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:

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(5)
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.

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(6)
Na’ná’á biyaa góne’ dóó báhátis ’adiłt’oh.
bridge 3-under below and 3-across 3-3-shoot.P
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it.

Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:

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(7)
Kin Łánídi naashnish háálá ’áadi shaghan.
Flagstaff 1-work.I because there 1-live.NI
I work in Flagstaff because I live there.

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(8)
Kin bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ hadah ’adzííłhaal ndi t’áadoo ’ádadénih da.
house 3-to-from down 1-tumble.P but NEG RFLX-1-hurt.P NEG
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt.

The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).

Navajo English Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? categories that can be conjoined
dóó ‘and’/‘and then’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP
’áádóó ‘and then’ yes clause
’áko ‘so, so that, so then’ yes clause
’áko ’índa ‘when, then’ yes clause
’áko ndi ‘even so, even then’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ‘then maybe/ then probably’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ’índa ‘then only’ yes clause
doodago ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
doodaii’ ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
-go no clause, NP
háálá ‘for, because’ yes clause
-ii’ ‘and, and thereupon’ yes clause
’índa ‘and only then’ no clause
léi’ ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ yes clause
ndi ‘but’ yes clause
’azhą́…ndi ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) clause
ńt’éé’ past maybe clause
yę́ędą́ą́’ past no clause
NP
noun phrase
PP
postpositional phrase
EP
postpositional enclitic phrase

With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.

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(9)
Shilééchąą’í bił na’nishkaadgo jooł bá ’abíńjíshhałgo yikéé’ náádiilwo’.
1-dog 3-with 1-herd.CI ball 3-for 3-1-bat.R-GO 3-after 3-run.R
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them.

The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:

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(10)
’Ádihodideesht’ih sha’shin nisingo t’áadoo ’atah haasdzíi’ da.
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble.

Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Some observations

Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).

When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)

Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.

Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.

An example search has returned 50 entries

’Ahwééh yishdlį́į́h ’áádóó naanishgóó yishááh.

coffee 3-1-drink.U and.then work-toward 3-1-go.U

’Atsiniltł’ish dóó tó dayókeedígíí baa ’áłah ’aleeh lá.

electricity and water pl-3-request.I-NOM 3-for meeting DISC

’Azhą́ hasistih ndi ’ayóo ’eesh’į́.

even.though 1-be.old.P even.though very 3-1-see.Prog

’azhą́ndi

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even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding

’Azhą́ shaa jidiijéé' ndi, t'áá hwéé deeshwoł.

even.though 1-from-4-start-run.P just but 1-run.F

’Ałk’idą́ą́’ tł’oh naadą́ą́’ dant’į́įhgo łį́į́’ doodaii’ béégashii da há hada’ał’éés ńt’éé’.

long.ago grass corn 3-ripen.I-GO horse or cow etc. 4-for 3-stomp.I past

’Áádóó haa hóót’įįd?

and.then how ho-happened.P

’Áádóó hainidzaa?

and.then what-3-2-do.P

’áko ’índa

CONJ
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when, then

’áko shį́į́ ’índa

CONJ

’Ííyą́ą́dóó bik’ijį’ tsinyaagi nétį́į́ dóó ’iiłhaazh.

1-eat.P and 3-after tree-under-at.spec 1-lie.down.P and 1-sleep.P
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I ate and afterwards I lay down under the tree and slept.

’Ííłta’ dóó ’iiłghaazh.

1-read.P CONJ 1-sleep.P

’Ólta’góó daats’í deeshááł doodaii’ jooł bee nideeshneeł.

school-toward maybe 1-walk.F or ball 3-with 1-play.F

Át’ah ’índa shaa náádíídááł.

later 1-to again-2-come.F

Bichidí yichǫ’ yę́ędą́ą́’ ’ashkii t’áani’ nálwod.

3-vehicle 3-P-ruin past boy on.foot 3-P-return
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The boy returned on foot when his car broke down.

Bini’ íídeeshtah doodago ’éiyá yóó’ ’adeeshwoł.

let will-1-school or only away 1-off-run.P

Chidí binaashnish yę́ę ’áádóó t’óó ni’ kwíishłaa.

vehicle 3-1-work.CI past and.then just stop 1-stop.P
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I was working on the vehicle and then I just let it be.

Chidí łizhinígíí doodago łigaaígíí daats’í nahideeshnih?

car black-nom or white-nom perhaps 3-2-buy.F

Damóo yę́ędą́ą́’ Yootóógóó niséyá.

Sunday past Santa.Fe-to 1-go.P

Damóogo ’áłah ’aleeh ’áko ’áadi nihaadíínááł.

Sunday 3-gather 3-be so there-at 1-Pl-to-2-arrive.F

Diné nihaikaíígíí nihizaad nideilkaahgo ayóó bił danilį́ ’áko ndi doo ’akót’ée da.

people 1dpl-3-come.pl.P-COMP 1dpl-language pl-3-1-investigate.I-GO very 3-with pl-3-be.NI even so NEG thus-3-be.NI NEG
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The people who came to visit us believe that we are doing a great job investigating our language, but that is not the case.

Díí chidí ’ayóo dilwo’ ha’ní ’áko ndi doo baa jííníshłíi da.

this car very 3-fast 3-say.P CONJ NEG 3-about 4-1-rely.P NEG

Doo hah shił ’ílwod da léi’ t’áá ’íídą́ą́’ da’oodą́ą́’ lá.

NEG quick me.with 3.drive.P NEG since already 3pl.eat.P discover
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Since I was late they ate without me.

Díí séí dóó tsé yázhí ’ałtahígíí łeezh bikáa’gi naasaas ’áko shį́į́ doo hashtł’ish da doołeeł.

this sand and stone little mixed.together-NOM dirt 3-on-at 3-1-sprinkle.Prog then maybe NEG mud NEG future

Háí dahoneesná, Kinłánídę́ę́’ ’Óola yee ’ádadójíhígíí doodago Gah Bikee’ Taah Yí’áhídę́ę́’ Hado yee ’ádadójíhígíí daats’í?

who pl-3-win.P Denver-from nugget 3-with RFLX-pl-4-call.NI-nom or Florida-from heat 3-with RFLX-pl-4-call.NI-nom perhaps

Joe dóó Louise hataał.

Joe and Louise 3-sing.CI

Jooł ’ahííłhan ’áádóó ’atiin dóó ’anít’i’ báhátis ’eelts’id.

ball 3-1-throw.P and.then road and fence 3-over 3-move.SRO.P

K’ad ’ałníí’góó ’eeshtł’óół doo yę́ę ła’ damóo yę́ędą́ą́’ t’áadoo ’asétł’ǫ́ǫ da.

now half-toward 1-weave.Prog future past one Sunday when.past NEG 1-weave.P NEG

Na’ná’á biyaa góne’ dóó báhátis ’adiłt’oh.

bridge 3-under below and 3-across 3-3-shoot.P

Naʼahóóhai baa nídiikai ʼakó ʼakʼidahiʼniłí bee shí ʼadíílwoł.

rodeo 3-about 1pl-do.F so saddle.blanket 3-with 1-after 2-help.F

Náá’íídéeshtah nisin doodago t’óó siláogóó deeshááł.

again-1-go.school.F 1-want or merely military-to 1-go.F

Neezdáago ’índa yiyííłtsą́.

3-sit.P-Comp only.then 3-3-see.P

Nida’iilyéego ’áłt’ąą yiską́ągo ’índanááł doo.

pass.pay.I-go after.all tomorrow only.then 2-come.Prog future

Nizhónígo ha’íí’ą́ yę́ędą́ą́’ ts'íiłgo da’ségis.

beautiful sunrise past quickly pl-3-1-wash.P
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I quickly did my laundry during the beautiful sunrise.

Nídeezidgo ’índa hoł ní’deeswod.

month-GO only.then 4-with 2-drive.back.F

Shicheii déidiiłjeeh’ii’, hoozdohgóó nahisiitą́.

1-grandfather 3-3-built.fire.P-and warm-to 3-sit.P

Shik’is b ’ílyeed ’áko shį́į́ da’diidį́į́ł.

1-friend 3-with 3-drive CONJ 1-Pl-eat.F
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My friend is coming (by car); maybe we’ll eat then (when s/he gets here).

Shimá sání dah díníilghaazh ’ayiila’ii’, nihí yaa néíni’ką́.

1-grandmother frybread 3-3-make.P-and 1.dpl under 3-3-place.P

Shimá tanaashgiizh ’áyiilaago ’áádóó deiilts’ee’.

1-mother pudding 3-make.P-GO and.then pl-3-1dpl-eat.MM.P
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My mom made pudding and then we ate it.

Shimá bighangóó shíni’ ńt’éé’ ch’ééh déago shhoogéé’.

1-mother 3-home-to 1-desire.to.go past in.vain 1-go.P-GO 1-with ho-become.lazy.X

Shį́įgo ch’ééh jiyáán yishį́į́h ’áádóó tó lą’í yishdlį́į́h.

summer-GO watermelon 3-1-eat.U and.then water lots 3-1-drink.U

Sitsii’ ndeeshshoh léi’ tó ’anideizgiz lá.

1-hair 3-1-moist.F because water 3-turn.off.R DISC
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I was going to wet my hair but the water got turned off.

Tsé binahjį’ kídíníikeeł dóó háádiilyįh.

rock 3-against 1du-sit.F and 1du-rest.F
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Let’s sit down against the rock and rest.

Tsé nitsaa ’áko nidaaz.

stone 3-big CONJ 3-heavy
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The stone is big so it is heavy.

Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.

cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P

Tsinaabąąs bee nida’abąąs yę́ędą́ą́’ shi’dizhchį́.

wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I past 1-pass-born.P

Yéego ’ííníłta’, she’awéé’, ’áko nizhónígo ni’dííłtah.

really 2-study.NI 1-baby so well 2-graduate.F

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Give education your best, my child, so that you can graduate.

Yéego nihee nahóółtą́ągo yá’át’ééh doo yę́ę ’áko shį́į́ naadą́ą́’ dadinóosééł.

hard.GO 1pl-on 3-rain.P.GO 3-good future wish then maybe corn 3pl-grow.F

ʼAwéé chʼídeeldloʼ; chʼiyáán bá ʼádaʼdoołííł dóó bá niʼdaʼdoonih.

baby 3-laugh.P food 3-for pl-3-2dpl-prepare.F and 3-for pl-3-2dpl-distribute.F