Introduction to Conjunctions

This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.

This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.

Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.

Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:

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(1)
Joe dóó Louise hataał.
Joe and Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe and Louise are singing.

The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:

(2)
Joe hataał.
Joe 3-sing.CI
Joe is singing.
(3)
*Joe Louise hataał.
Joe Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe Louise is singing.

Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.

In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:

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(4)
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
Joe and Louise and Kii pl-3-sing.CI
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing.

The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:

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(5)
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.

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(6)
Na’ná’á biyaa góne’ dóó báhátis ’adiłt’oh.
bridge 3-under below and 3-across 3-3-shoot.P
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it.

Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:

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(7)
Kin Łánídi naashnish háálá ’áadi shaghan.
Flagstaff 1-work.I because there 1-live.NI
I work in Flagstaff because I live there.

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(8)
Kin bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ hadah ’adzííłhaal ndi t’áadoo ’ádadénih da.
house 3-to-from down 1-tumble.P but NEG RFLX-1-hurt.P NEG
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt.

The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).

Navajo English Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? categories that can be conjoined
dóó ‘and’/‘and then’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP
’áádóó ‘and then’ yes clause
’áko ‘so, so that, so then’ yes clause
’áko ’índa ‘when, then’ yes clause
’áko ndi ‘even so, even then’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ‘then maybe/ then probably’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ’índa ‘then only’ yes clause
doodago ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
doodaii’ ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
-go no clause, NP
háálá ‘for, because’ yes clause
-ii’ ‘and, and thereupon’ yes clause
’índa ‘and only then’ no clause
léi’ ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ yes clause
ndi ‘but’ yes clause
’azhą́…ndi ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) clause
ńt’éé’ past maybe clause
yę́ędą́ą́’ past no clause
NP
noun phrase
PP
postpositional phrase
EP
postpositional enclitic phrase

With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.

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(9)
Shilééchąą’í bił na’nishkaadgo jooł bá ’abíńjíshhałgo yikéé’ náádiilwo’.
1-dog 3-with 1-herd.CI ball 3-for 3-1-bat.R-GO 3-after 3-run.R
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them.

The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:

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(10)
’Ádihodideesht’ih sha’shin nisingo t’áadoo ’atah haasdzíi’ da.
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble.

Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Some observations

Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).

When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)

Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.

Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.

An example search has returned 50 entries

’Ashdladi oolkiłgo ’áko shį́į́ ’índa ákǫ́ǫ́ diikah.

five.at time-GO only until then there 1dpl-go.pl.I
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At 5 o’clock only then we’ll leave for there.

’Ashkii bi’éé’ hazhó’ó ’ayíyiischid dóó ’ólta’ góne’ yah ’ííyá.

boy 3-shirt nicely 3-3-tuck.in.P and 3-go.P

’Atsiniltł’ish dóó tó dayókeedígíí baa ’áłah ’aleeh lá.

electricity and water pl-3-request.I-NOM 3-for meeting DISC

’Azhą́ deesk’aaz ndi t’áá ’ákwíí jį́ na’nishkaad.

even. though 3-cold.SPN but just every day 1-herd CI

’Azhą́ shibéeso hólǫ́ǫ ndi t’áadoo ła’ baa nínil da.

even.though 1-money 3-exist.NI even.though NEG some 3-to 3-1-give.PlO1.P NEG

’Azhą́ ts’aa’ nízhóní ndi ’áłts’íísí.

even.though basket 3-be.pretty.NI even.though 3-be.small.NI
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Even though the basket is pretty, it is small.

’azhą́ndi

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even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding

’Ałk’idą́ą́’ dahane’ yę́ę k’ad ’índa baa nídahane’.

past pl-3.tell.story.I old now until.now 3-for pl-3.tell.story.I
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In the past, all those old stories are now being retold.

’Ałk’idą́ą́’ tł’oh naadą́ą́’ dant’į́įhgo łį́į́’ doodaii’ béégashii da há hadahwiił’éés ńt’éé’.

long.ago grass corn 3-ripen.I-GO horse or cow etc. 4-for 3-stomp.I past

’Áádóó ch’íníyá nít’ę́ę́’ shik’ijiijéé’.

and.then out-1-go.P past 1-on-4-attack.pl.P
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And then I went out, and they attacked me.

’Áádóó haa hóót’įįd?

and.then how ho-happened.P

’Áádóó hainidzaa?

and.then what-3-2-do.P

’Áádóó níléíjigo daaníigo t’óó ’áajigo sh dah ’adiilwod.

and.then over.there-toward pl-3-say.I-GO just that.way-toward 1-with start.off 3-drive.P
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And then they said to go that way, so I just drove that way.

’Áádóó shą’?

and.then Q

’áko shį́į́

CONJ
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then maybe, then probably

’Áłtsé biba’ dooleeł ’áko shį́į́ ’índa nihił dah adidoolwoł.

first 3.for will until then only 1.with start 3-drive.F

’Áłah ’aleehgo ch’iyáán ’ádadiilnííł ’áko shį́į́ ’índa diné ndahidookah.

meeting-Comp food 3-1-Pl-make.F CONJ people 3-Pl.will-arrive.F

’Íídeeshwosh daats’í doodaii’ saad naalkaah bindeeshnish.

1-sleep.F maybe or word research 3-1-work.F

Ahwééh yishdlį́į́ ’áko ’índa ch’éénásdzíd.

coffee 3-1.drink.P when 3-1.wake.up.P
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After I drink my coffee I wake up.

Bibee’eldǫǫh haiyííłhan’ii’ ’bįįh yił ’adeesdǫǫh.

gun 3-jerk.out.P-and deer 3-shot.P

Bini’ íídeeshtah doodago ’éiyá yóó’ ’adeeshwoł.

let will-1-school or only away 1-off-run.P

Ch’aa dé ńt’éé shichídí bikee’ dilkǫǫh.

travel 1-go past 1-vehicle 3-tires worn.
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I was going to travel however my vehicle tires are worn.

Ch’iyáán ’ííshłaa ’áádóó da’iidą́ą́’.

food 3-1-make.P CONJ 1Pl-eat.P

Ch’iyáán t’óó ’ahayóí ndi tó ’ádin.

food lots but water 3-none.NI
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There’s lots of food but no water.

Chidí binaashnish yę́ę ’áádóó t’óó ni’ kwíishłaa.

vehicle 3-1-work.CI past and.then just stop 1-stop.P
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I was working on the vehicle and then I just let it be.

Chizh ła’ ’ahidíłkaał ’áko ’índa nich’į’ n’deeshłééł.

firewood some 2-chop CONJ 2-to 1-pay.F
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I’ll pay you when you chop some wood (and not before).

Damóogo ’áłah ’aleeh ’áko ’áadi nihaadíínááł.

Sunday 3-gather 3-be so there-at 1-Pl-to-2-arrive.F

Dichinísh doodaii’ dibáá’ísh jinízin?

hunger-Q or thirst-Q 3-4-want.NI

Diné nishłį́ndi Bilaagana bizaad t’éí bee yáshti’.

Navajo 1-be.NI but English language only 3-with 1-speak.I

Díí chidí ’ayóo dilwo’ ha’ní ’áko ndi doo baa jííníshłíi da.

this car very 3-fast 3-say.P CONJ NEG 3-about 4-1-rely.P NEG

Dlǫ́ǫ́’ ’a’ą́ą́dę́ę́’ hanoolne’ dóó naneesne’.

prairie.dog hole-from stick.head.up.out.P and 3-look.around.P

Doo hah shił ’ílwod da léi’ t’áá ’íídą́ą́’ da’oodą́ą́’ lá.

NEG quick me.with 3.drive.P NEG since already 3pl.eat.P discover
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Since I was late they ate without me.

dóó

CONJ

Hónáhoot’éhí ’índa ch’aa deeshááł nissin.

next.year until travel will.go.F 1-desire.

I’m thinking about traveling until next year.

léi’

because, inasmuch as, or in view of the fact that

Náá’íídéeshtah nisin doodago t’óó siláogóó deeshááł.

again-1-go.school.F 1-want or merely military-to 1-go.F

Neezdáago ’índa yiyííłtsą́.

3-sit.P-Comp only.then 3-3-see.P

Níléígóó díní’į́į́’ shidíiniidgo ’áádóó ’áajigo déé’į́į́’.

over.there-toward 2-look.I 1-3-say.P-GO and.then that.way-toward 1-look.P
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I was told to look that way and then I looked that way.

Sha’ałchíní ayóó niłch’í naalkídi deineł’į́ ’áko ndi shí éí shináá bąą adin.

1-children very air 3-move.I 3-3.look.I however I 1-eyes 3-on doesn’t exist.

Shi’dizhchį́į́ yęędą́ą́’ ’éí tsinaabąąs dahólǫ́ nt’éé.

1-pass-born.P past TOP wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I pl-be.NI past
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Wagons were around during the time I was born.

Shileechąą’í halǫ́ǫ́ ńt’éé’ są biis.

1-dog have past old.age 3-die.of.P
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I used to have a dog but it died of old age.

Shimá dóó shizhé’é Yootóodi ’ółta’ ńt’éé’.

1-mother and 1-father Santa.Fe-at 3-go.to.school.NI past

Shíká ’anánílwo’ doodaii’ t’áadoo shaa nánít’íní.

1-for 3-run.R or just-neg 1-to 2-1-bother.I
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Help me or else don’t bother me!

Shį́įgo ch’ééh jiyáán yishį́į́h ’áádóó tó lą’í yishdlį́į́h.

summer-GO watermelon 3-1-eat.U and.then water lots 3-1-drink.U

T’áá ’ashání ’ashą́ą ndi sitsį’ yę́ę ’áádįįł.

just 1-eat.I-í 1-eat.I but 1-flesh past 3-dwindle.Prog
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I eat and eat but I keep right on losing weight.

Yéego ’ííníłta’, shi’awéé’, ’áko nizhónígo ni’dííłtah.

really 2-study.NI 1-baby so well 2-graduate.F
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Give education your best, my child, so that you can graduate.

Ła’ damóo yę́ędą́ą́’ dah ’iyétł’ónée, k’ad ’ałníí’góó ’eeshtł’óół.

one Sunday past up 3-1-set.P-past now middle-toward 1-weave.Prog

Ła’ nídeezid yę́ędą́ą́’ ’áajigo niséyá.

one month past that-way-GO 1.go.P

Łį́į́’ bá ni’níłjoolgo ’índa kintahgóó diikah.

horse 3-for 2.feed.NCM.P only.then town-GO 3pl.go.F
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I will feed the horse only then we will go to town.