Introduction to Conjunctions
This lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. Conjunctions combine two or more sentences or phrases into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.
This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs, and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish coordination from subordination.
Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence the meaning of the conjunction.
Coordination is a kind of syntactic structure that allows two similar constituents to act as one. For example, Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below:
The verb hataał is intransitive, meaning that it can have only one argument:
Joe | hataał. |
Joe | 3-sing.CI |
Joe is singing. |
*Joe | Louise | hataał. |
Joe | Louise | 3-sing.CI |
Joe Louise is singing. |
Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people, the sentence does not make sense because the verb is intransitive. Coordination, used in (1), allows two or more phrases to act as one.
In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will need to have a plural marker in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. |
Joe | and | Louise | and | Kii | pl-3-sing.CI |
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing. |
The examples above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ | dóó | tsédáajį’ | ninish’na’. |
cave-from | and | cliff-to | 1-crawl.P |
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff. |
Na’ná’á | biyaa | góne’ | dóó | báhátis | ’adiłt’oh. | |
bridge | 3-under | below | and | 3-across | 3-3-shoot.P | |
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it. |
Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:
Kin | Łánídi | naashnish | háálá | ’áadi | shaghan. |
Flagstaff | 1-work.I | because | there | 1-live.NI | |
I work in Flagstaff because I live there. |
Kin | bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ | hadah | ’adzííłhaal | ndi | t’áadoo | ’ádadénih | da. |
house | 3-to-from | down | 1-tumble.P | but | NEG | RFLX-1-hurt.P | NEG |
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt. |
The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Navajo | English | Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? | categories that can be conjoined |
---|---|---|---|
dóó | ‘and’/‘and then’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP |
’áádóó | ‘and then’ | yes | clause |
’áko | ‘so, so that, so then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ’índa | ‘when, then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ndi | ‘even so, even then’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ | ‘then maybe/ then probably’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ ’índa | ‘then only’ | yes | clause |
doodago | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
doodaii’ | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
-go | no | clause, NP | |
háálá | ‘for, because’ | yes | clause |
-ii’ | ‘and, and thereupon’ | yes | clause |
’índa | ‘and only then’ | no | clause |
léi’ | ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ | yes | clause |
ndi | ‘but’ | yes | clause |
’azhą́…ndi | ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ | yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) | clause |
ńt’éé’ | past | maybe | clause |
yę́ędą́ą́’ | past | no | clause |
- NP
- noun phrase
- PP
- postpositional phrase
- EP
- postpositional enclitic phrase
Subordination is a different way that two sentences can be combined into one. The enclitic -go attached to the first sentence subordinates it to the second:
Shilééchąą’í | bił | na’nishkaadgo | jooł | bá | ’abíńjíshhałgo | yikéé’ | náádiilwo’. |
1-dog | 3-with | 1-herd.CI | ball | 3-for | 3-1-bat.R-GO | 3-after | 3-run.R |
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them. |
The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:
’Ádihodideesht’ih | sha’shin | nisingo | t’áadoo | ’atah | haasdzíi’ | da. |
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. | |
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble. |
Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Some observations
Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).
When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)
Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.
Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.
An example search has returned 50 entries
’Adą́ą́dą́ą́’ shá bíighah ’atah ’adishdiłgo ’i’íí’ą́.
yesterday 1-for 3-passing down 1-play.stick.dice.RI-GO evening’Aná’ázt’i’ ńtłóo’go biniinaa béégashii t’óó yigháńdaakah.
fence 3-loose.P-GO 3-because.of cow just 3-through-pl-3-go.pl.P’índa
’Óshą́ą́’ laanaa’ dichin shi’niiłxį́.
1-eat.O wish hunger 1-3-kill.I-áátis
-ąąh
-jí
designates ceremonies, religious and political institutions and lifeways
bookmarkBéégashii yáázh bichá ninish’aah.
calf 3-bunch 3-1-put.I.SRObik’ídazhdidis
pl-3DO-4dpl-wrap.it.around.it.ICh’ééh jiyáán hooghangóó dah dii’ągo shee nikihoníłt.
watermelon home-toward up 3-1-move.SRO.P 1-with area-start-rain.PChidí daats’í bee hólǫ́ doodaii’ niísh chidí nee hólǫ́?
car maybe 3-with 4-exist.N or 2-Q car 2-with 4-exist.NIChidí sits’ą́ą́’ hashtł’ish yiih yilwodgo t’áá ch’į́į́góó ch’ééh ’ííł’įįd.
car 1-away mud 3-into 3-go.P-GO just fail in.vain 3-1-act.PI did everything possible to get my car out of the mud.
bookmark- -ts’ą́ą́’ away from, separating from, derived fromfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- location
- -iih intofind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- location
- -go verb and subordinating encliticfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- ch’į́į́góó, ch’ínígóó everything possible without resultfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- ch’ééh in vain, futilely, tryfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
Deenásts’aa’ shił naaldloosh ńt’éé’ shimá siiłtsą́, yiniinaa násineestsxas.
ram 1-with 3-trot.CI past 1-mother 1-3-see.P 3-because 1-3-whip.Pdeidííłhį́į́’
pl-3DO-3dpl-melt.it.Pdeishóóh
pl-3DO-3dpl-brush/comb.it.IDichinísh doodaii’ dibáá’ísh jinízin?
hunger-Q or thirst-Q 3-4-want.NIDíkwíísh ninááhai?
how.many-Q 2-winter.NIDoo hanii ni ’ałdó’ nilį́į́’ bik’i dah ’íníił da.
NEG contrary 2 also 2-horse 3-on up saddle 3-2-put.PlO.I NEGDoo t’áá k’ad chidí na’ní’ą́ą da.
NEG just now vehicle 2-3-1-lend.P NEGdoołhį́į́’
3DO-2dpl-melt.it.PHa’át’éego lá ’íiyisíí ’atiinjį’ ’ańdeeshdááł lá?
how Q main road-up.to 1-back-on-go.F DISCHa’át’éegoshą’ ’ayóo náníldzid?
why-Q very 2-fear.IHa’át’íí baa ’áłah ’aleeh jiní?
what 3-for meeting 4-say.NIHádą́ą́’sh Mary ’ólta’dę́ę́’ nádzá?
when-past-Q Mary school-from 3-return.PJoołísh ’atiin tsé’naa ’ahííníłhan doodaii’ daats’í ’anít’i’ báhátis ’ahííníłhan?
ball-Q road across 3-2-throw.P or perhjaps fence 3-over 3-2-throw.PKin Łánídiísh ’éí doodago Bee’eldííldahsinildi daats’í naniná?
Flagstaff-at-Q TOP or Albuquerque-at perhaps 2-go.around.CIKintah góyaa yishááł ńt’éé’ béeso ńdiiłtsooz
areal-down 1-go.Prog past money 3-1-pick.FFO.PKwii nináá’nísh’aah.
here again-3-1-place.RNa’ńle’dii. Tó háníyá, tóhą́ą ’ásdįįd lá.
dismay water areal-1.go 3-disappear.P DISCNáhookǫsdę́ę́’ níłch’igo ’ayóo deesk’aaz.
north.from breeze-GO very cold.SPNNidlóóhísh doodaii’ dooísh nidlóoh da?
2-cold.I-Q or NEG-Q 2-cold.I-Q NEGNihá naazíinii bił neikai.
our leaders 3-with 3pl-1pl-go.Pniyą́
3DO-2-eat.it.IShich’ah tsékooh góyaa ’adah bił ’ííyol.
1-hat gorge areal-down downward 3-with 3-blow.PShiyáázh shaa yógháah le’ nissingo sédá.
my.son 1-for 3-arrive.O hope 3-1-want.CI-GO 1-sit.It’ah ńt’éé’
t’áá gééd
Tsxį́įłgo łees’áán ádíílííł; nimásání nihaa yíghááh!
quickly tortilla 2-make.F 2.poss-mat.grandma-NOM 1.pl-to 3-come.Fyididínóołkał
3DO-3-start.to.herd.them.(animals).Fstart to herd them (animals), 3rd person
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