Introduction to Conjunctions
This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.
This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.
Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.
Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:
The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:
Joe | hataał. |
Joe | 3-sing.CI |
Joe is singing. |
*Joe | Louise | hataał. |
Joe | Louise | 3-sing.CI |
Joe Louise is singing. |
Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.
In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. |
Joe | and | Louise | and | Kii | pl-3-sing.CI |
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing. |
The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ | dóó | tsédáajį’ | ninish’na’. |
cave-from | and | cliff-to | 1-crawl.P |
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff. |
Na’ná’á | biyaa | góne’ | dóó | báhátis | ’adiłt’oh. | |
bridge | 3-under | below | and | 3-across | 3-3-shoot.P | |
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it. |
Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:
Kin | Łánídi | naashnish | háálá | ’áadi | shaghan. |
Flagstaff | 1-work.I | because | there | 1-live.NI | |
I work in Flagstaff because I live there. |
Kin | bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ | hadah | ’adzííłhaal | ndi | t’áadoo | ’ádadénih | da. |
house | 3-to-from | down | 1-tumble.P | but | NEG | RFLX-1-hurt.P | NEG |
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt. |
The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).
Navajo | English | Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? | categories that can be conjoined |
---|---|---|---|
dóó | ‘and’/‘and then’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP |
’áádóó | ‘and then’ | yes | clause |
’áko | ‘so, so that, so then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ’índa | ‘when, then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ndi | ‘even so, even then’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ | ‘then maybe/ then probably’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ ’índa | ‘then only’ | yes | clause |
doodago | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
doodaii’ | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
-go | no | clause, NP | |
háálá | ‘for, because’ | yes | clause |
-ii’ | ‘and, and thereupon’ | yes | clause |
’índa | ‘and only then’ | no | clause |
léi’ | ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ | yes | clause |
ndi | ‘but’ | yes | clause |
’azhą́…ndi | ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ | yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) | clause |
ńt’éé’ | past | maybe | clause |
yę́ędą́ą́’ | past | no | clause |
- NP
- noun phrase
- PP
- postpositional phrase
- EP
- postpositional enclitic phrase
With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.
Shilééchąą’í | bił | na’nishkaadgo | jooł | bá | ’abíńjíshhałgo | yikéé’ | náádiilwo’. |
1-dog | 3-with | 1-herd.CI | ball | 3-for | 3-1-bat.R-GO | 3-after | 3-run.R |
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them. |
The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:
’Ádihodideesht’ih | sha’shin | nisingo | t’áadoo | ’atah | haasdzíi’ | da. |
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. | |
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble. |
Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Some observations
Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).
When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)
Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.
Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.
An example search has returned 50 entries
’Ashdladi oolkiłgo ’áko shį́į́ ’índa ákǫ́ǫ́ diikah.
five.at time-GO only until then there 1dpl-go.pl.I’Ashkii bi’éé’ hazhó’ó ’ayíyiischid dóó ’ólta’ góne’ yah ’ííyá.
boy 3-shirt nicely 3-3-tuck.in.P and 3-go.P’Atsiniltł’ish dóó tó dayókeedígíí baa ’áłah ’aleeh lá.
electricity and water pl-3-request.I-NOM 3-for meeting DISC’Azhą́ deesk’aaz ndi t’áá ’ákwíí jį́ na’nishkaad.
even. though 3-cold.SPN but just every day 1-herd CI’Azhą́ shibéeso hólǫ́ǫ ndi t’áadoo ła’ baa nínil da.
even.though 1-money 3-exist.NI even.though NEG some 3-to 3-1-give.PlO1.P NEG’Azhą́ ts’aa’ nízhóní ndi ’áłts’íísí.
even.though basket 3-be.pretty.NI even.though 3-be.small.NI’Ałk’idą́ą́’ dahane’ yę́ę k’ad ’índa baa nídahane’.
past pl-3.tell.story.I old now until.now 3-for pl-3.tell.story.I’Ałk’idą́ą́’ tł’oh naadą́ą́’ dant’į́įhgo łį́į́’ doodaii’ béégashii da há hadahwiił’éés ńt’éé’.
long.ago grass corn 3-ripen.I-GO horse or cow etc. 4-for 3-stomp.I past’Áádóó ch’íníyá nít’ę́ę́’ shik’ijiijéé’.
and.then out-1-go.P past 1-on-4-attack.pl.P’Áádóó níléíjigo daaníigo t’óó ’áajigo shił dah ’adiilwod.
and.then over.there-toward pl-3-say.I-GO just that.way-toward 1-with start.off 3-drive.P’Áádóó shą’?
and.then Q’áko shį́į́
CONJ’Áłtsé biba’ dooleeł ’áko shį́į́ ’índa nihił dah adidoolwoł.
first 3.for will until then only 1.with start 3-drive.F’Áłah ’aleehgo ch’iyáán ’ádadiilnííł ’áko shį́į́ ’índa diné ndahidookah.
meeting-Comp food 3-1-Pl-make.F CONJ people 3-Pl.will-arrive.F’Íídeeshwosh daats’í doodaii’ saad naalkaah bindeeshnish.
1-sleep.F maybe or word research 3-1-work.FAhwééh yishdlį́į́ ’áko ’índa ch’éénásdzíd.
coffee 3-1.drink.P when 3-1.wake.up.PBibee’eldǫǫh haiyííłhan’ii’ ’bįįh yił ’adeesdǫǫh.
gun 3-jerk.out.P-and deer 3-shot.PBini’ íídeeshtah doodago ’éiyá yóó’ ’adeeshwoł.
let will-1-school or only away 1-off-run.PCh’aa déyá ńt’éé shichídí bikee’ dilkǫǫh.
travel 1-go past 1-vehicle 3-tires worn.Ch’iyáán ’ííshłaa ’áádóó da’iidą́ą́’.
food 3-1-make.P CONJ 1Pl-eat.PCh’iyáán t’óó ’ahayóí ndi tó ’ádin.
food lots but water 3-none.NIChidí binaashnish yę́ę ’áádóó t’óó ni’ kwíishłaa.
vehicle 3-1-work.CI past and.then just stop 1-stop.PChizh ła’ ’ahidíłkaał ’áko ’índa nich’į’ n’deeshłééł.
firewood some 2-chop CONJ 2-to 1-pay.FDamóogo ’áłah ’aleeh ’áko ’áadi nihaadíínááł.
Sunday 3-gather 3-be so there-at 1-Pl-to-2-arrive.FDichinísh doodaii’ dibáá’ísh jinízin?
hunger-Q or thirst-Q 3-4-want.NIDiné nishłį́į ndi Bilaagana bizaad t’éí bee yáshti’.
Navajo 1-be.NI but English language only 3-with 1-speak.IDíí chidí ’ayóo dilwo’ ha’ní ’áko ndi doo baa jííníshłíi da.
this car very 3-fast 3-say.P CONJ NEG 3-about 4-1-rely.P NEGThey say this car is fast but even so I don’t have any expectation for it.
bookmarkDlǫ́ǫ́’ ’a’ą́ą́dę́ę́’ hanoolne’ dóó naneesne’.
prairie.dog hole-from stick.head.up.out.P and 3-look.around.PThe prairie dog stuck his head up out of the hole and looked around quickly.
bookmarkDoo hah shił ’ílwod da léi’ t’áá ’íídą́ą́’ da’oodą́ą́’ lá.
NEG quick me.with 3.drive.P NEG since already 3pl.eat.P discoverHónáhoot’éhí ’índa ch’aa deeshááł nissin.
next.year until travel will.go.F 1-desire.léi’
because, inasmuch as, or in view of the fact that
bookmarkNáá’íídéeshtah nisin doodago t’óó siláogóó deeshááł.
again-1-go.school.F 1-want or merely military-to 1-go.FNeezdáago ’índa yiyííłtsą́.
3-sit.P-Comp only.then 3-3-see.PNíléígóó díní’į́į́’ shidíiniidgo ’áádóó ’áajigo déé’į́į́’.
over.there-toward 2-look.I 1-3-say.P-GO and.then that.way-toward 1-look.PSha’ałchíní ayóó niłch’í naalkídi deineł’į́ ’áko ndi shí éí shináá bąą adin.
1-children very air 3-move.I 3-3.look.I however I 1-eyes 3-on doesn’t exist.Shi’dizhchį́į́ yęędą́ą́’ ’éí tsinaabąąs dahólǫ́ nt’éé.
1-pass-born.P past TOP wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I pl-be.NI pastShileechąą’í halǫ́ǫ́ ńt’éé’ są biisxé.
1-dog have past old.age 3-die.of.PShimá dóó shizhé’é Yootóodi ’ółta’ ńt’éé’.
1-mother and 1-father Santa.Fe-at 3-go.to.school.NI pastShíká ’anánílwo’ doodaii’ t’áadoo shaa nánít’íní.
1-for 3-run.R or just-neg 1-to 2-1-bother.IShį́įgo ch’ééh jiyáán yishį́į́h ’áádóó tó lą’í yishdlį́į́h.
summer-GO watermelon 3-1-eat.U and.then water lots 3-1-drink.UT’áá ’ashání ’ashą́ą ndi sitsį’ yę́ę ’áádįįł.
just 1-eat.I-í 1-eat.I but 1-flesh past 3-dwindle.ProgYéego ’ííníłta’, shi’awéé’, ’áko nizhónígo ni’dííłtah.
really 2-study.NI 1-baby so well 2-graduate.FŁa’ damóo yę́ędą́ą́’ dah ’iyétł’ónée, k’ad ’ałníí’góó ’eeshtł’óół.
one Sunday past up 3-1-set.P-past now middle-toward 1-weave.ProgLast week I set up a loom, and now I am halfway finished with weaving (a rug).
bookmark- -dą́ą́’ past timefind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- yę́ędą́ą́’ past
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’iishtł’ǫ́ set up a loomfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- k’ad nowfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Progressive (Prog)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’ashtł’ó weavefind in Navajo Verb Modes