Introduction to Conjunctions

This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.

This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.

Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.

Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:

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(1)
Joe dóó Louise hataał.
Joe and Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe and Louise are singing.

The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:

(2)
Joe hataał.
Joe 3-sing.CI
Joe is singing.
(3)
*Joe Louise hataał.
Joe Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe Louise is singing.

Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.

In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:

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(4)
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
Joe and Louise and Kii pl-3-sing.CI
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing.

The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:

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(5)
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.

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(6)
Na’ná’á biyaa góne’ dóó báhátis ’adiłt’oh.
bridge 3-under below and 3-across 3-3-shoot.P
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it.

Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:

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(7)
Kin Łánídi naashnish háálá ’áadi shaghan.
Flagstaff 1-work.I because there 1-live.NI
I work in Flagstaff because I live there.

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(8)
Kin bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ hadah ’adzííłhaal ndi t’áadoo ’ádadénih da.
house 3-to-from down 1-tumble.P but NEG RFLX-1-hurt.P NEG
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt.

The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).

Navajo English Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? categories that can be conjoined
dóó ‘and’/‘and then’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP
’áádóó ‘and then’ yes clause
’áko ‘so, so that, so then’ yes clause
’áko ’índa ‘when, then’ yes clause
’áko ndi ‘even so, even then’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ‘then maybe/ then probably’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ’índa ‘then only’ yes clause
doodago ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
doodaii’ ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
-go no clause, NP
háálá ‘for, because’ yes clause
-ii’ ‘and, and thereupon’ yes clause
’índa ‘and only then’ no clause
léi’ ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ yes clause
ndi ‘but’ yes clause
’azhą́…ndi ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) clause
ńt’éé’ past maybe clause
yę́ędą́ą́’ past no clause
NP
noun phrase
PP
postpositional phrase
EP
postpositional enclitic phrase

With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.

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(9)
Shilééchąą’í bił na’nishkaadgo jooł bá ’abíńjíshhałgo yikéé’ náádiilwo’.
1-dog 3-with 1-herd.CI ball 3-for 3-1-bat.R-GO 3-after 3-run.R
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them.

The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:

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(10)
’Ádihodideesht’ih sha’shin nisingo t’áadoo ’atah haasdzíi’ da.
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble.

Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Some observations

Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).

When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)

Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.

Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.

An example search has returned 50 entries

Shichʼéʼé kinaasdaʼgo bitsiiʼ shá beʼdíítłʼóół tʼáásh ʼáko?

1-daughter 3-reach.puberty.P-GO 3-hair 1-for 3-2-tie.F just-Q okay

’Asdzą́ą́ ’éí ’ashkii ha’át’íí yeiní’ą́?

woman TOP boy what 3-to-3-3-move.SRO.P
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What did the woman give the boy?

’Ałk’ésdisí naháłnii’go sitsilí dóó shideezhí ’aheełt’éego bá ’ahá níjaa’.

candy 3-1-buy.P-GO 1-little.brother and 1-little.sister RECP-equal-GO 3-for RECP-for 3-lie.aligned.PlO.NP

’áyąą, ’áyaańda

-kéé’

-ne’

Beehaz’áanii bik’ehgo baa hwiiníst’įįd.

laws 3-according-to-GO 3-about 3-discuss.P

Béésh náábał dóó haa nízahdi nighan?

windmill and how 3-long.N-at 2-home
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How far is your place from the windmill?

Béésh ’áłts’ózí bee ’atsidí bee ’aháníłne’.

wire hammer 3-with 3-1-beat.P
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I beat the wire in two with a hammer.

Ch’aa dé ńt’éé shichídí bikee’ dilkǫǫh.

travel 1-go past 1-vehicle 3-tires worn.
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I was going to travel however my vehicle tires are worn.

Chidí naat’a’íísh hooghan yikáá’góó ch’éta’ ’éí doodago daats’í dził yąąhgóó ch’ét’a’?

airplane-Q house 3-over-along 3-fly.P TOP or perhaps mountain 3-over-along 3-fly.P

Da’ naadą́’ísh nee hólǫ́?

Q corn-Q 2-with 3-exist.NI

dadidoołhįh

pl-3DO-2dpl-melt.it.F

deiidą́

pl-3DO-1dpl-eat.it.I

deitł’ó

pl-3DO-3dpl-weave.it.I

deiyą́

pl-3DO-3dpl-eat.it.I

Dibé nee hólǫ́, ya’?

sheep 2-with 3-exist.NI Q

didiilyįh

3DO-1dpl-melt.it.F

didííníłjéé’

3DO-2-start.fire.P

Diné bikéyah bikáa’gi łáhágóó ninádahałtį́įh łeh.

Navajo 3-land 3-on-at a.few.places areal-rain.I usually

Dííshą’ látsíní háádę́ę́’ naa ninídee’?

this-Q bracelet where-from 2-to 3-arrive.PlO.P

Dlǫ́ǫ́’ ba’áán góne’ yahadeeshnii’go dlǫ́’áyázhí shishhash.

prairie.dog 3-hole into down1-3.to.reach.out.hand prairie.dog-little 1-bite.P

doo ’ashohodéébéézhgóó

Haa níníłnééz?

what 2-tall.relatively.NI
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How tall are you?

Haidą́ą́’ ’a’áán góne’ naashnish ńt’éé’ --- doo sh yá’át’éeh da.

winter-past mine.shaft 1-work.I past neg 1-with 3-good.N neg

Halah doo bííghah jiztį́į da.

opposite.sibling NEG 3-beside 4-lay.O NEG
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Do not lay beside your brother or sister.

Hastóíí dóó sáanii k’inááda’didlé.

3-men and 3-women planting.again.PL.R
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The men and women are planting again.

Háágóó lá díníyá?

where-to.Q 2-go.F

Háíshą’ tsinaa’eeł ’áyiilaa?

who-Q boat 3-3-make.P

Hónáhoot’éhí ’índa ch’aa deeshááł nissin.

next.year until travel will.go.F 1-desire.

I’m thinking about traveling until next year.

K’aa’ísh ’aní’á biyaa doodago daats’í báhátis ’ayiist’oh ?

arrow-Q bridge 3-under or perhaps 3-over 3-3-shot.P

K’os hóle’!

cloud 3s-become.O
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I wish for clouds

K’os jóhonaa’éí yich’ą́ą́h ’i’ííjool.

cloud sun 3-protect 3-drift.P
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A cloud moved in front of the sun.

Mary yíká hoolne’.

Mary 3-for 3-call.P

Nichidí háadish nííníłbą́ą́z?

2-car where-at-Q 3-2-park.P

nijiskáá’

3DO-4-investigate.it.P

Shilééchąą’í yázhí shikéé’ yildlosh ńt’éé’ hashtł’ish yiih yildloozh.

1-dog little 1-behind 3-walk.Prog past mud 3-into 3-walk.P

Shilééchąą’í yázhí táa’go tsásk’eh yiyaa ’ahííjéé’.

1-dog small three-comp bed 3-under 3-lie.pl.NP
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My three puppies are lying with part of their bodies extending under the bed.

Shiyáázh nih ’oołbąs dooleeł.

1-son 1pl-with 3-drive.Prog will.be

Shizhé’éésh łį́į́’ yiyííshǫǫdę́ę ’ayóó ’eelwod?

1-father horse-Q 3-3-tame.P-COMP.past really 3-run.away.P

Shínaaí shich’ą́ą́h naaghá.

1-older.brother 1-protect 3-go.CI
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My older brother protects me.

T’ah ’ałk’idídą́ą́’ ’éí Diné tát’áá góyaa kéédahat’íinii t’éiyá díí tábąąhgóó bidáda’ak’eh naaznil ńt’éé’.

still quite.long.ago the people water-near areal-down pl-3-reside.NI-NOM only this water-edge-toward farm 3-lie.PlO.SPN past

T’áadoo hoshíníkéhé.

T’ÁADOO 2-scold.NI-Í

T’áá ’íídą́ą́’ ła’ nímasii bik’ééłgizh.

already some potato 3-1-peel.P

T’áá ká ’ooshháásh.

neg 1-go.to.sleep.O

T’áádoo shich’į’ béésh nídiiłts’į́hí

NEG 1-to phone 2-call.R-Í

Tó tsíídkáá’ didíkaah.

water charcoal-on start-3-2-put.I.OC

yíní’aal

3DO-2-chew.it.P

Łeechaʼí ʼóyą́ą́, éí nabídishgizh.

Dog 3-eat.O TOPIC 3-surgery.P
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Don´t let the dog eat, it had surgery.

ʼAzhishgóó, sis łigaii shaʼ díílééł.

dance-to 1-go.F belt silver 1-borrow3-lend.SFO.F