Introduction to Conjunctions
This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.
This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.
Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.
Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:
The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:
Joe | hataał. |
Joe | 3-sing.CI |
Joe is singing. |
*Joe | Louise | hataał. |
Joe | Louise | 3-sing.CI |
Joe Louise is singing. |
Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.
In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. |
Joe | and | Louise | and | Kii | pl-3-sing.CI |
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing. |
The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ | dóó | tsédáajį’ | ninish’na’. |
cave-from | and | cliff-to | 1-crawl.P |
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff. |
Na’ná’á | biyaa | góne’ | dóó | báhátis | ’adiłt’oh. | |
bridge | 3-under | below | and | 3-across | 3-3-shoot.P | |
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it. |
Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:
Kin | Łánídi | naashnish | háálá | ’áadi | shaghan. |
Flagstaff | 1-work.I | because | there | 1-live.NI | |
I work in Flagstaff because I live there. |
Kin | bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ | hadah | ’adzííłhaal | ndi | t’áadoo | ’ádadénih | da. |
house | 3-to-from | down | 1-tumble.P | but | NEG | RFLX-1-hurt.P | NEG |
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt. |
The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).
Navajo | English | Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? | categories that can be conjoined |
---|---|---|---|
dóó | ‘and’/‘and then’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP |
’áádóó | ‘and then’ | yes | clause |
’áko | ‘so, so that, so then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ’índa | ‘when, then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ndi | ‘even so, even then’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ | ‘then maybe/ then probably’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ ’índa | ‘then only’ | yes | clause |
doodago | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
doodaii’ | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
-go | no | clause, NP | |
háálá | ‘for, because’ | yes | clause |
-ii’ | ‘and, and thereupon’ | yes | clause |
’índa | ‘and only then’ | no | clause |
léi’ | ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ | yes | clause |
ndi | ‘but’ | yes | clause |
’azhą́…ndi | ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ | yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) | clause |
ńt’éé’ | past | maybe | clause |
yę́ędą́ą́’ | past | no | clause |
- NP
- noun phrase
- PP
- postpositional phrase
- EP
- postpositional enclitic phrase
With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.
Shilééchąą’í | bił | na’nishkaadgo | jooł | bá | ’abíńjíshhałgo | yikéé’ | náádiilwo’. |
1-dog | 3-with | 1-herd.CI | ball | 3-for | 3-1-bat.R-GO | 3-after | 3-run.R |
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them. |
The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:
’Ádihodideesht’ih | sha’shin | nisingo | t’áadoo | ’atah | haasdzíi’ | da. |
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. | |
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble. |
Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Some observations
Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).
When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)
Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.
Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.
An example search has returned 50 entries
Jáan biʼdizhchínéejįʼ ʼanááyííłką́. Bá daʼdiidį́į́ł.
John 3-birth.past-up-to again-day.P 3-for 1pl-eat.F’Ach’íí’ ła’ deeshį́į́ł.
rolled.intestine some 1-eat.F’Ahbínídą́ą́’ t’áadoo ’ííyą́ą́’góó biniinaa wónáásdóó sitsiits’iin díínii’.
morning-past neg 1-eat.P-GO.NEG because soon 1-head 3-ache.PI didn’t eat this morning, so my head ached.
bookmark- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’ashą́ eatfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- díínii’ ache, be in painfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’ahbínídą́ą́’ this morningfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -niinaa because of, on account offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
’Ahwééh náshdlį́į́h áádóó naanishgóó yishááh.
coffee again-1-drink.R then work-toward 1-go.I’Atiin bąąhgóó béésh halne’é tsin bá ’adaaz’á.
road 3-along.side telephone pole 3-for 3Pl-stand.upright.SPN’áko shį́į́
CONJ’Áłchíní bi’éé’ náádaségis.
children 3-clothes 3-1-wash.R-yah
Béégashii yáázh ła’ shibee’í’diidłííd bik’i niní’ą́.
calf one 1-cattle.brand 3-on 3-1-put.NPCh’íníyáá nít’ę́ę́’ t’áá hooshch’į’ łééchąą’í shich’į’ ch’élwod.
out-1-go.P past suddenly 1-to dog out-3-come.PWhen I went out, all of a sudden a dog came out to me.
bookmark- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ch’éghááh go outfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- t’áá hoosch’į’ suddenlyfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -ch’į’ to, towardfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ch’élyeed run outfind in Navajo Verb Modes
Ch’óóshdą́ą́dą́ą́’ Diné Bizaad naalkaah doo baa ’áhonissin da. K’ad ’éí t’áá shxǫǫd bik’i’diitą́.
formerly Navajo language research NEG 3-about 1-aware.CI NEG | now TOP at.least 3-of-1-understand.PFrom the beginning, I didn’t know about Navajo linguistics. Now I’m finally able to understand it.
bookmark- ch’óóshdą́ą́dą́ą́’ formerly, originallyfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Continuative Imperfective (CI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’áhonissin be awarefind in Navajo Verb Modes
- t’áá justfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- diists’a hear, understandfind in Navajo Verb Modes
Chidí daats’í bee hólǫ́ ’éí doodaii’ niísh chidí nee hólǫ́?
car maybe 3-with 4-exist.N TOP or 2-Q car 2-with 4-exist.NIdadiilbish
pl-3DO-1dpl-boil.it.Fdeiłbéézh
pl-3DO-3dpl-boil.it.Ideiłhį́į́h
pl-3DO-3dpl-melt.it.(snow).Idididiiljah
3DO-1dpl-start.fire.Fdiilbish
3DO-1dpl-boil.it.FDíí ’abíní dibé tóógóó neeshkał.
this morning sheep water-to 3-1-herd.ProgDíí chidí ’ayóo dilwo’ ha’ní ’áko ndi doo baa jííníshłíi da.
this car very 3-fast 3-say.P CONJ NEG 3-about 4-1-rely.P NEGThey say this car is fast but even so I don’t have any expectation for it.
bookmarkDíí tł’éé’ t’áá ká dóola dá’ák’eólyeed lágo, dádiʼnítįįh.
this night NEG bull into.field-3-run.O hope.not 3-2-close.gate.IDon’t let the bull get into the field tonight, so close the gate.
bookmark- I-A-Command, negative
- I-i-Optative with t’áá ká and lágo
- t’áá ká don’tfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- lágo negative particle used with the optative modefind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Optative (O)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- I-A-Command, affirmative
- I-i-Imperfective
- Imperfective (I) (∅, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
doo --- le’ ’át’éégóó
dooshą’ dó’ léi’ --- lá
Hádą́ą́’sh Mary ’ólta’dę́ę́’ nádzá?
when-past-Q Mary school-from 3-return.PHáí lá Naatsis’áángóó náádeesdzá?
who-Q discover Navajo.Mountain.GOO again-3-go.FHáísh tsinaa’eeł ’áyiilaa?
who-Q boat 3-3-make.PHodíína’go ch’í’deeshnił.
later.GO out.animals.FJohn dáádílkałdóó sizį́į́ dóó ’áádę́ę́’ déez’į́į́’.
John door-from 3-stand.SPN and there-from 3-look.CIKin Łánídiísh ’éí doodago Bee’eldííldahsinildi daats’í naniná?
Flagstaff-at-Q TOP or Albuquerque-at perhaps 2-go.around.CIMary bimá sání yá ’ata’ halne’.
Mary 3-grandmother 3-for indef-between 3-talk.DIMósí yázhí chizhtah yiyah yílwod.
kitten woodpile.among 3-under 3-run.PNichxǫ' doo ájíníi da.
stop NEG 4-say.thus.NI NEGŃléí dziłtsį́į́góó diit’ash.
there mountain-base-toward start-1du-go.du.IShiyáázh nízaadi naalnishgo bídin sélį́į́’.
1-son far-at 3-work-GO 3-lack 1-be.SPNShį́į́dą́ą́’ na’niiłkaadgo t’áá ’áháníjį’ ’adeeshch’iłgo bik’ee deelyiz.
T’áá ’ałkéé’ ’azee’ííł’íní bił yah ’adahaadzá.
just one-behind-another doctor 3-with into 1Dist-4-go.ITó Haach’i’dę́ę́’ ’ííyisíí naashá.
Tohatchi-from truly 1-go.CITsinaabąąs bee nida’abąąs yę́ędą́ą́’ shi’dizhchį́.
wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I past 1-pass-born.PYéego ’ííníłta’, shi’awéé’, ’áko nizhónígo ni’dííłtah.
really 2-study.NI 1-baby so well 2-graduate.Fyik’íididis
3DO-3-wrap.it.around.it.IYiską́ągo Na’nízhoozhídi, háádish ’adeeshį́į́ł ninízin?
tomorrow Gallup-at where-Q 2-eat.F 2-want.CIWhere do you want to eat in Gallup tomorrow?
bookmark- yiską́ągo tomorrowfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -di atfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- háá-P.ENCLITIC wherefind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- Future (F)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- yíshą́ eat itfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- Continuative Imperfective (CI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- nisin think, wantfind in Navajo Verb Modes