Introduction to Conjunctions

This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.

This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.

Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.

Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:

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(1)
Joe dóó Louise hataał.
Joe and Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe and Louise are singing.

The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:

(2)
Joe hataał.
Joe 3-sing.CI
Joe is singing.
(3)
*Joe Louise hataał.
Joe Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe Louise is singing.

Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.

In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:

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(4)
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
Joe and Louise and Kii pl-3-sing.CI
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing.

The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:

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(5)
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.

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(6)
Na’ná’á biyaa góne’ dóó báhátis ’adiłt’oh.
bridge 3-under below and 3-across 3-3-shoot.P
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it.

Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:

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(7)
Kin Łánídi naashnish háálá ’áadi shaghan.
Flagstaff 1-work.I because there 1-live.NI
I work in Flagstaff because I live there.

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(8)
Kin bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ hadah ’adzííłhaal ndi t’áadoo ’ádadénih da.
house 3-to-from down 1-tumble.P but NEG RFLX-1-hurt.P NEG
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt.

The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).

Navajo English Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? categories that can be conjoined
dóó ‘and’/‘and then’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP
’áádóó ‘and then’ yes clause
’áko ‘so, so that, so then’ yes clause
’áko ’índa ‘when, then’ yes clause
’áko ndi ‘even so, even then’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ‘then maybe/ then probably’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ’índa ‘then only’ yes clause
doodago ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
doodaii’ ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
-go no clause, NP
háálá ‘for, because’ yes clause
-ii’ ‘and, and thereupon’ yes clause
’índa ‘and only then’ no clause
léi’ ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ yes clause
ndi ‘but’ yes clause
’azhą́…ndi ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) clause
ńt’éé’ past maybe clause
yę́ędą́ą́’ past no clause
NP
noun phrase
PP
postpositional phrase
EP
postpositional enclitic phrase

With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.

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(9)
Shilééchąą’í bił na’nishkaadgo jooł bá ’abíńjíshhałgo yikéé’ náádiilwo’.
1-dog 3-with 1-herd.CI ball 3-for 3-1-bat.R-GO 3-after 3-run.R
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them.

The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:

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(10)
’Ádihodideesht’ih sha’shin nisingo t’áadoo ’atah haasdzíi’ da.
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble.

Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Some observations

Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).

When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)

Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.

Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.

An example search has returned 50 entries

Jáan biʼdizhchínéejįʼ ʼanááyííłką́. Bá daʼdiidį́į́ł.

John 3-birth.past-up-to again-day.P 3-for 1pl-eat.F
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It is Johnʼs birthday. Let’s have a dinner for him.

’Ach’íí’ ła’ deeshį́į́ł.

rolled.intestine some 1-eat.F
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I will eat rolled intestines now and then.

’Ahbínídą́ą́’ t’áadoo ’ííyą́ą́’góó biniinaa wónáásdóó sitsiits’iin díínii’.

morning-past neg 1-eat.P-GO.NEG because soon 1-head 3-ache.P

’Ahwééh náshdlį́į́h áádóó naanishgóó yishááh.

coffee again-1-drink.R then work-toward 1-go.I
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I drink coffee and then I go to work.

’Atiin bąąhgóó béésh halne’é tsin bá ’adaaz’á.

road 3-along.side telephone pole 3-for 3Pl-stand.upright.SPN
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The telephones are upright along the road for the phone line.

’áko shį́į́

CONJ
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then maybe, then probably

’ániidígo

’Áłchíní bi’éé’ náádaségis.

children 3-clothes 3-1-wash.R
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I will wash the children’s clothes again.

-nánii

-yah

Béégashii yáázh ła’ shibee’í’diidłííd bik’i niní’ą́.

calf one 1-cattle.brand 3-on 3-1-put.NP

bik’ídidiidis

3DO-1dpl-wrap.it.around.it.F

Ch’íníyáá nít’ę́ę́’ t’áá hooshch’į’ łééchąą’í shich’į’ ch’élwod.

out-1-go.P past suddenly 1-to dog out-3-come.P

Ch’óóshdą́ą́dą́ą́’ Diné Bizaad naalkaah doo baa ’áhonissin da. K’ad ’éí t’áá shxǫǫd bik’i’diitą́.

formerly Navajo language research NEG 3-about 1-aware.CI NEG | now TOP at.least 3-of-1-understand.P

Chidí daats’í bee hólǫ́ ’éí doodaii’ niísh chidí nee hólǫ́?

car maybe 3-with 4-exist.N TOP or 2-Q car 2-with 4-exist.NI

da’

dadiilbish

pl-3DO-1dpl-boil.it.F

deiłbéézh

pl-3DO-3dpl-boil.it.I

deiłhį́į́h

pl-3DO-3dpl-melt.it.(snow).I

dididiiljah

3DO-1dpl-start.fire.F

diilbish

3DO-1dpl-boil.it.F

Díí ’abíní dibé tóógóó neeshkał.

this morning sheep water-to 3-1-herd.Prog

Díí chidí ’ayóo dilwo’ ha’ní ’áko ndi doo baa jííníshłíi da.

this car very 3-fast 3-say.P CONJ NEG 3-about 4-1-rely.P NEG

Díí tł’éé’ t’áá ká dóola dá’ák’eólyeed lágo, dádiʼnítįįh.

this night NEG bull into.field-3-run.O hope.not 3-2-close.gate.I

doo --- le’ ’át’éégóó

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used with the optative mode to produce a meaning roughly equivalent to “proof against”

dooshą’ dó’ léi’ --- lá

doozhǫǫgo

Díí haidíígíísh shí?

TOPIC which.one-ÍGÍÍ-Q 1-belong
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Which one belongs to me?

haa néelt’e’

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how much, how many, what quantity. [count]

Hádą́ą́’sh Mary ’ólta’dę́ę́’ nádzá?

when-past-Q Mary school-from 3-return.P

Háí lá Naatsis’áángóó náádeesdzá?

who-Q discover Navajo.Mountain.GOO again-3-go.F

Háísh tsinaa’eeł ’áyiilaa?

who-Q boat 3-3-make.P

Hodíína’go ch’í’deeshnił.

later.GO out.animals.F
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I’ll take out the animals soon.

John dáádílkałdóó sizį́į́ dóó ’áádę́ę́’ déez’į́į́’.

John door-from 3-stand.SPN and there-from 3-look.CI
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John is standing at the doorway and looking this way.

Kin Łánídiísh ’éí doodago Bee’eldííldahsinildi daats’í naniná?

Flagstaff-at-Q TOP or Albuquerque-at perhaps 2-go.around.CI

Mary bimá sání yá ’ata’ halne’.

Mary 3-grandmother 3-for indef-between 3-talk.DI

Mary łį́į́’ b yá’át’ééh.

Mary horse 3-with 3-good.NI

Mosi ałtsi’si ndi nidaaz.

cat small but 3-heavy.NI

The cat is small but it is heavy.

Mósí yázhí chizhtah yiyah yílwod.

kitten woodpile.among 3-under 3-run.P

Nichxǫ' doo ájíníi da.

stop NEG 4-say.thus.NI NEG
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Stop, don’t say it!

Ńléí dziłtsį́į́góó diit’ash.

there mountain-base-toward start-1du-go.du.I

Shiyáázh nízaadi naalnishgo bídin sélį́į́’.

1-son far-at 3-work-GO 3-lack 1-be.SPN

Shį́į́dą́ą́’ na’niiłkaadgo t’áá ’áháníjį’ ’adeeshch’iłgo bik’ee deelyiz.

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Last summer when we were out herding sheep a bolt of lightning struck nearby and gave us a startle.

T’áá ’ałkéé’ ’azee’ííł’íní bił yah ’adahaadzá.

just one-behind-another doctor 3-with into 1Dist-4-go.I

Tó Haach’i’dę́ę́’ ’ííyisíí naashá.

Tohatchi-from truly 1-go.CI

Tsinaabąąs bee nida’abąąs yę́ędą́ą́’ shi’dizhchį́.

wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I past 1-pass-born.P

Yéego ’ííníłta’, shi’awéé’, ’áko nizhónígo ni’dííłtah.

really 2-study.NI 1-baby so well 2-graduate.F
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Give education your best, my child, so that you can graduate.

yik’íididis

3DO-3-wrap.it.around.it.I

Yiską́ągo Na’nízhoozhídi, háádish ’adeeshį́į́ł ninízin?

tomorrow Gallup-at where-Q 2-eat.F 2-want.CI

yíníshóó’

3DO-2-brush/comb.it.P