Introduction to Conjunctions
This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.
This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.
Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.
Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:
The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:
| Joe | hataał. |
| Joe | 3-sing.CI |
| Joe is singing. | |
| *Joe | Louise | hataał. |
| Joe | Louise | 3-sing.CI |
| Joe Louise is singing. | ||
Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.
In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:
| Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. |
| Joe | and | Louise | and | Kii | pl-3-sing.CI |
| Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing. | |||||
The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:
| Tsé’áándę́ę́’ | dóó | tsédáajį’ | ninish’na’. |
| cave-from | and | cliff-to | 1-crawl.P |
| I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff. | |||
| Na’ná’á | biyaa | góne’ | dóó | báhátis | ’adiłt’oh. | |
| bridge | 3-under | below | and | 3-across | 3-3-shoot.P | |
| S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it. | ||||||
Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:
| Kin | Łánídi | naashnish | háálá | ’áadi | shaghan. |
| Flagstaff | 1-work.I | because | there | 1-live.NI | |
| I work in Flagstaff because I live there. | |||||
| Kin | bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ | hadah | ’adzííłhaal | ndi | t’áadoo | ’ádadénih | da. |
| house | 3-to-from | down | 1-tumble.P | but | NEG | RFLX-1-hurt.P | NEG |
| I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt. | |||||||
The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).
| Navajo | English | Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? | categories that can be conjoined |
|---|---|---|---|
| dóó | ‘and’/‘and then’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP |
| ’áádóó | ‘and then’ | yes | clause |
| ’áko | ‘so, so that, so then’ | yes | clause |
| ’áko ’índa | ‘when, then’ | yes | clause |
| ’áko ndi | ‘even so, even then’ | yes | clause |
| ’áko shį́į́ | ‘then maybe/ then probably’ | yes | clause |
| ’áko shį́į́ ’índa | ‘then only’ | yes | clause |
| doodago | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
| doodaii’ | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
| -go | no | clause, NP | |
| háálá | ‘for, because’ | yes | clause |
| -ii’ | ‘and, and thereupon’ | yes | clause |
| ’índa | ‘and only then’ | no | clause |
| léi’ | ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ | yes | clause |
| ndi | ‘but’ | yes | clause |
| ’azhą́…ndi | ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ | yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) | clause |
| ńt’éé’ | past | maybe | clause |
| yę́ędą́ą́’ | past | no | clause |
- NP
- noun phrase
- PP
- postpositional phrase
- EP
- postpositional enclitic phrase
With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.
| Shilééchąą’í | bił | na’nishkaadgo | jooł | bá | ’abíńjíshhałgo | yikéé’ | náádiilwo’. |
| 1-dog | 3-with | 1-herd.CI | ball | 3-for | 3-1-bat.R-GO | 3-after | 3-run.R |
| When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them. | |||||||
The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:
| ’Ádihodideesht’ih | sha’shin | nisingo | t’áadoo | ’atah | haasdzíi’ | da. |
| Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. | |
| I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble. | ||||||
Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Some observations
Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).
When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)
Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.
Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.
An example search has returned 50 entries
’Adą́ą́dą́ą́’ ná’iyéláá’ nít’éé’ nídasésdo.
Yesterday SUP-1-pick.P past 1-sore.SP’Ahwééh yishdlį́į́h ’áádóó naanishgóó yishááh.
coffee 3-1-drink.U and.then work-toward 3-1-go.U’Azhą́ hasistih ndi ’ayóo ’eesh’į́.
even.though 1-be.old.P even.though very 3-1-see.Prog’Azhą́ shibéeso hólǫ́ǫ ndi t’áadoo ła’ baa nínil da.
even.though 1-money 3-exist.NI even.though NEG some 3-to 3-1-give.PlO1.P NEG’Azhą́ ts’aa’ nízhóní ndi ’áłts’íísí.
even.though basket 3-be.pretty.NI even.though 3-be.small.NI’Ałk’idą́ą́’ tł’oh naadą́ą́’ dant’į́įhgo łį́į́’ doodaii’ béégashii da há hadahwiił’éés ńt’éé’.
long.ago grass corn 3-ripen.I-GO horse or cow etc. 4-for 3-stomp.I past’Áádóó ch’íníyá nít’ę́ę́’ shik’ijiijéé’.
and.then out-1-go.P past 1-on-4-attack.pl.P’Áádóó éí haa daadzaa?
and.then TOP what pl-3-do.P’áko shį́į́
CONJ’Ííyą́ą́’ dóó bik’ijį’ tsinyaagi nétį́į́ dóó ’iiłhaazh.
1-eat.P and 3-after tree-under-at.spec 1-lie.down.P and 1-sleep.PBįįh níséł’ah nit’éé’ bizid sid bąąh láh.
deer 3-butcher.P PAST 3-liver 3-on-GI scar EMPHCh’aa déyá ńt’éé shichídí bikee’ dilkǫǫh.
travel 1-go past 1-vehicle 3-tires worn.Ch’ééh jiyáán náshdį́į́h ’áádóó tó náshdlį́į́h.
watermelon again-1-eat.R then water again-1-drink.RCh’iyáán ’íishłaa ’áádóó da’iidą́ą́’.
food 3-1-make.P CONJ 1Pl-eat.PCh’iyáán t’óó ’ahayóí ndi tó ’ádin.
food lots but water 3-none.NIChidí nahideeshnih ndi shibéeso ’ádin.
car 3-1-buy.F but 1-money 3-none.NIChizh ła’ ’ahidíłkaał ’áko ’índa nich’į’ n’deeshłééł.
firewood some 2-chop CONJ 2-to 1-pay.FDa’ chidíísh bee hólǫ́ doodaii’ ni daats’í chidí nee hólǫ́?
Q car-Q 3-with 4-exist.NI or 2 maybe car 2-with 4-exist.NIDoes s/he have a car or do you have a car?
bookmark- da’ particle for yes/no questionsfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- -ísh enclitic for yes/no questionsfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- -ee by means offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- accompaniment
- doodaii’ particle orfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- doodaii’ or
- daats’í particle for perhapsfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- Neuter Imperfective (NI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
Damóogo ’áłah ’aleeh ’áko ’áadi nihaadíínááł.
Sunday 3-gather 3-be so there-at 1-Pl-to-2-arrive.FDichinísh doodaii’ dibáá’ísh dzinízin?
hunger-Q or thirst-Q 3-4-want.NIDiné nihaikaíígíí nihizaad nideilkaahgo ayóó bił danilį́ ’áko ndi doo ’akót’ée da.
people 1dpl-3-come.pl.P-COMP 1dpl-language pl-3-1-investigate.I-GO very 3-with pl-3-be.NI even so NEG thus-3-be.NI NEGDiné ła’ nizhónígo kéédahojit’į́ danihó’ní, ’áko ndi doo ’ákót’ée da.
people some 3-nice.NI-GO pl-4-3-reside.NI 3-Pl. so but NEG 4-think.CI NEGDíí chidí ’ayóo dilwo’ ha’ní ’áko ndi doo baa jííníshłíi da.
this car very 3-fast 3-say.P CONJ NEG 3-about 4-1-rely.P NEGDoo ’íits’a’ída nít’éé’ ’áłt’ąą Irene níyáago ’índa hahodíídláád.
NEG 3-sound.P-NEG past finally Irene 3-arrive.P-go only.then 3-uproar.PDíí séí dóó tsé yázhí ’ałtahígíí łeezh bikáa’gi naasaas ’áko shį́į́ doo hashtł’ish da doołeeł.
this sand and stone little mixed.together-NOM dirt 3-on-at 3-1-sprinkle.Prog then maybe NEG mud NEG futureHííłch’į’go ’índa ta’iideeshnih.
evening.GO until 1-mix.dough.FHoozdohgóó daats’í deeshááł ’éí doodaii’ Be’eldííldahsínilgóó deeshááł.
Phoenix-toward maybe 1-walk.F or Albuquerque-toward 1-walk.FHónáhoot’éhí ’índa ch’aa deeshááł nissin.
next.year until travel will.go.F 1-desire.Jooł ’ahííłhan ’áádóó ’atiin dóó ’anít’i’ báhátis ’eelts’id.
ball 3-1-throw.P and.then road and fence 3-over 3-move.SRO.PKii łį́į́’ yizloh léi’ yí’diiłííd.
Kii horse 3-3-rope.SP CONJ 3-3-brand.IKinŁánídi ’ííníshta’ ńt’éé’ ’áádóó t’áá ’ániidígo ’áadi náánísdzáá ńtéé’ ’ééhosisya’ lá.
Flagstaff-in 1-study.P past and.then just recently there-at 1-return.P past 1-get.hazy.P discNaʼahóóhai baa nídiikai ʼakó ʼakʼidahiʼniłí bee shíká ʼadíílwoł.
rodeo 3-about 1pl-do.F so saddle.blanket 3-with 1-after 2-help.FNeezdáago ’índa yiyííłtsą́.
3-sit.P-Comp only.then 3-3-see.PNizhónígo ha’íí’ą́ yę́ędą́ą́’ sxíiłgo da’ségis.
beautiful sunrise past quickly pl-3-1-wash.PNídeezidgo ’índa hoł ní’deeswod.
month-GO only.then 4-with 2-drive.back.FShimá bighangóó shíni’ ńt’éé’ ch’ééh déyáago shił náhoogéé’.
1-mother 3-home-to 1-desire.to.go past in.vain 1-go.P-GO 1-with ho-become.lazy.XI wanted to go to my mother’s house however I was tired and became lazy.
bookmark- -góó to, toward, along, on, with a numeral it indicates a datefind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Future (F)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ńt’éé’ past
- ch’ééh in vain, futilely, tryfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- déyá gofind in Navajo Verb Modes
- -ił withfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Imperfective (I) (∅, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
Shį́įgo ’ahbínígo ’ashdladi dóó ’ałníi’go k’adę́ę ha’a’aah łeh.
summer-GO morning-GO five-at and half-GO almost 3-sunrise.I usuallyShoo, nahachagii t’óó ’ahayóí nihaa nínáá lá; ’áko shį́į́ baa ’ákodanosin dooleeł.
hey.look grasshopper merely many 1pl-to 3-migrate.P mirative then maybe 3-of 2pl-be.aware.NI FUTHey look! We have alot of grasshoppers migrating through here; be aware of them.
bookmark- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- -aa tofind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- ’áko shį́į́ then maybe, then probably
- -aa tofind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Neuter Imperfective (NI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’áhonissin be awarefind in Navajo Verb Modes
- dooleeł futurefind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon




