Introduction to Conjunctions

This lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. Conjunctions combine two or more sentences or phrases into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.

This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs, and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish coordination from subordination.

Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence the meaning of the conjunction.

Coordination is a kind of syntactic structure that allows two similar constituents to act as one. For example, Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below:

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(1)
Joe dóó Louise hataał.
Joe and Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe and Louise are singing.

The verb hataał is intransitive, meaning that it can have only one argument:

(2)
Joe hataał.
Joe 3-sing.CI
Joe is singing.
(3)
*Joe Louise hataał.
Joe Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe Louise is singing.

Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people, the sentence does not make sense because the verb is intransitive. Coordination, used in (1), allows two or more phrases to act as one.

In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will need to have a plural marker in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:

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(4)
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
Joe and Louise and Kii pl-3-sing.CI
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing.

The examples above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:

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(5)
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.

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(6)
Na’ná’á biyaa góne’ dóó báhátis ’adiłt’oh.
bridge 3-under below and 3-across 3-3-shoot.P
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it.

Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:

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(7)
Kin Łánídi naashnish háálá ’áadi shaghan.
Flagstaff 1-work.I because there 1-live.NI
I work in Flagstaff because I live there.

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(8)
Kin bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ hadah ’adzííłhaal ndi t’áadoo ’ádadénih da.
house 3-to-from down 1-tumble.P but NEG RFLX-1-hurt.P NEG
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt.

The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Navajo English Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? categories that can be conjoined
dóó ‘and’/‘and then’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP
’áádóó ‘and then’ yes clause
’áko ‘so, so that, so then’ yes clause
’áko ’índa ‘when, then’ yes clause
’áko ndi ‘even so, even then’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ‘then maybe/ then probably’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ’índa ‘then only’ yes clause
doodago ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
doodaii’ ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
-go no clause, NP
háálá ‘for, because’ yes clause
-ii’ ‘and, and thereupon’ yes clause
’índa ‘and only then’ no clause
léi’ ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ yes clause
ndi ‘but’ yes clause
’azhą́…ndi ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) clause
ńt’éé’ past maybe clause
yę́ędą́ą́’ past no clause
NP
noun phrase
PP
postpositional phrase
EP
postpositional enclitic phrase

Subordination is a different way that two sentences can be combined into one. The enclitic -go attached to the first sentence subordinates it to the second:

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(9)
Shilééchąą’í bił na’nishkaadgo jooł bá ’abíńjíshhałgo yikéé’ náádiilwo’.
1-dog 3-with 1-herd.CI ball 3-for 3-1-bat.R-GO 3-after 3-run.R
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them.

The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:

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(10)
’Ádihodideesht’ih sha’shin nisingo t’áadoo ’atah haasdzíi’ da.
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble.

Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Some observations

Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).

When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)

Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.

Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.

An example search has returned 50 entries

’Adą́ą́dą́ą́’ shá bíighah ’atah ’adishdiłgo ’i’íí’ą́.

yesterday 1-for 3-passing down 1-play.stick.dice.RI-GO evening

’Aná’ázt’i’ ńtłóo’go biniinaa béégashii t’óó yigháńdaakah.

fence 3-loose.P-GO 3-because.of cow just 3-through-pl-3-go.pl.P
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Because the fence is slack (loose), the cows go right through it.

’índa

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and only then

’Óshą́ą́’ laanaa’ dichin shi’niiłxį́.

1-eat.O wish hunger 1-3-kill.I

-áátis

over, up and over, over the top

-ąąh

-de

-jí

Béégashii yáázh bichá ninish’aah.

calf 3-bunch 3-1-put.I.SRO

bik’ídazhdidis

pl-3DO-4dpl-wrap.it.around.it.I

Ch’ééh jiyáán hooghangóó dah dii’ągo shee nikihoníłt.

watermelon home-toward up 3-1-move.SRO.P 1-with area-start-rain.P
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When I set out for home with the melon it started to rain on me.

Chidí daats’í bee hólǫ́ doodaii’ niísh chidí nee hólǫ́?

car maybe 3-with 4-exist.N or 2-Q car 2-with 4-exist.NI

Chidí sits’ą́ą́’ hashtł’ish yiih yilwodgo t’áá ch’į́į́góó ch’ééh ’ííł’įįd.

car 1-away mud 3-into 3-go.P-GO just fail in.vain 3-1-act.P

Da’ Ron saad neiskáá’?

Q Ron word 3-3-investigate.P

de, deg

Deenásts’aa’ sh naaldloosh ńt’éé’ shimá siiłtsą́, yiniinaa násineestsxas.

ram 1-with 3-trot.CI past 1-mother 1-3-see.P 3-because 1-3-whip.P

deidííłhį́į́’

pl-3DO-3dpl-melt.it.P

deishóóh

pl-3DO-3dpl-brush/comb.it.I

Dichinísh doodaii’ dibáá’ísh jinízin?

hunger-Q or thirst-Q 3-4-want.NI

Díkwíísh ninááhai?

how.many-Q 2-winter.NI

Doo hanii ni ’ałdó’ nilį́į́’ bik’i dah ’íníił da.

NEG contrary 2 also 2-horse 3-on up saddle 3-2-put.PlO.I NEG

Doo t’áá k’ad chidí na’ní’ą́ą da.

NEG just now vehicle 2-3-1-lend.P NEG
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I don’t want to lend you a car.

doołhį́į́’

3DO-2dpl-melt.it.P

Ha’át’éego lá ’íiyisíí ’atiinjį’ ’ańdeeshdááł lá?

how Q main road-up.to 1-back-on-go.F DISC

Ha’át’éegoshą’ ’ayóo náníldzid?

why-Q very 2-fear.I

Ha’át’íí baa ’áłah ’aleeh jiní?

what 3-for meeting 4-say.NI

Ha’át’íí lá neidiyoołnih lá?

what DISC 3-3-buy.F DISC

haa níłtsááz

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how big around, how thick is it

Hádą́ą́’sh Mary ’ólta’dę́ę́’ nádzá?

when-past-Q Mary school-from 3-return.P

Joołísh ’atiin tsé’naa ’ahííníłhan doodaii’ daats’í ’anít’i’ báhátis ’ahííníłhan?

ball-Q road across 3-2-throw.P or perhjaps fence 3-over 3-2-throw.P

Kin Łánídiísh ’éí doodago Bee’eldííldahsinildi daats’í naniná?

Flagstaff-at-Q TOP or Albuquerque-at perhaps 2-go.around.CI

Kintah góyaa yishááł ńt’éé’ béeso ńdiiłtsooz

areal-down 1-go.Prog past money 3-1-pick.FFO.P

Kwii nináá’nísh’aah.

here again-3-1-place.R
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I will place it here again.

Na’ńle’dii. Tó háníyá, tóhą́ą ’ásdįįd lá.

dismay water areal-1.go 3-disappear.P DISC
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I went for water but to my dismay I found that it was all gone.

Náhookǫsdę́ę́’ níłch’igo ’ayóo deesk’aaz.

north.from breeze-GO very cold.SPN

ndi --- doo

Nidlóóhísh doodaii’ dooísh nidlóoh da?

2-cold.I-Q or NEG-Q 2-cold.I-Q NEG

Nihá naazíinii bił neikai.

our leaders 3-with 3pl-1pl-go.P
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We are with our representatives.

niyą́

3DO-2-eat.it.I

Shich’ah tsékooh góyaa ’adah b ’ííyol.

1-hat gorge areal-down downward 3-with 3-blow.P

Shimá sání t’áá shídin ’ííyá.

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My grandmother went away without me.

Shiyáázh shaa yógháah le’ nissingo sédá.

my.son 1-for 3-arrive.O hope 3-1-want.CI-GO 1-sit.I
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I’m here wishing my son would visit me.

t’ah ńt’éé’

t’áá gééd

Tsxį́įłgo łees’áán ádíílííł; nimásání nihaa yíghááh!

quickly tortilla 2-make.F 2.poss-mat.grandma-NOM 1.pl-to 3-come.F

yididínóołkał

3DO-3-start.to.herd.them.(animals).F

yiidą́ą́’

3DO-1dpl-eat.it.P

yik’íididoodis

3DO-3-wrap.it.around.it.F

yishóóh

3DO-1-brush/comb.it.I

łahágóó