Introduction to Conjunctions
This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.
This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.
Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.
Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:
The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:
Joe | hataał. |
Joe | 3-sing.CI |
Joe is singing. |
*Joe | Louise | hataał. |
Joe | Louise | 3-sing.CI |
Joe Louise is singing. |
Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.
In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. |
Joe | and | Louise | and | Kii | pl-3-sing.CI |
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing. |
The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ | dóó | tsédáajį’ | ninish’na’. |
cave-from | and | cliff-to | 1-crawl.P |
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff. |
Na’ná’á | biyaa | góne’ | dóó | báhátis | ’adiłt’oh. | |
bridge | 3-under | below | and | 3-across | 3-3-shoot.P | |
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it. |
Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:
Kin | Łánídi | naashnish | háálá | ’áadi | shaghan. |
Flagstaff | 1-work.I | because | there | 1-live.NI | |
I work in Flagstaff because I live there. |
Kin | bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ | hadah | ’adzííłhaal | ndi | t’áadoo | ’ádadénih | da. |
house | 3-to-from | down | 1-tumble.P | but | NEG | RFLX-1-hurt.P | NEG |
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt. |
The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).
Navajo | English | Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? | categories that can be conjoined |
---|---|---|---|
dóó | ‘and’/‘and then’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP |
’áádóó | ‘and then’ | yes | clause |
’áko | ‘so, so that, so then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ’índa | ‘when, then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ndi | ‘even so, even then’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ | ‘then maybe/ then probably’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ ’índa | ‘then only’ | yes | clause |
doodago | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
doodaii’ | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
-go | no | clause, NP | |
háálá | ‘for, because’ | yes | clause |
-ii’ | ‘and, and thereupon’ | yes | clause |
’índa | ‘and only then’ | no | clause |
léi’ | ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ | yes | clause |
ndi | ‘but’ | yes | clause |
’azhą́…ndi | ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ | yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) | clause |
ńt’éé’ | past | maybe | clause |
yę́ędą́ą́’ | past | no | clause |
- NP
- noun phrase
- PP
- postpositional phrase
- EP
- postpositional enclitic phrase
With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.
Shilééchąą’í | bił | na’nishkaadgo | jooł | bá | ’abíńjíshhałgo | yikéé’ | náádiilwo’. |
1-dog | 3-with | 1-herd.CI | ball | 3-for | 3-1-bat.R-GO | 3-after | 3-run.R |
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them. |
The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:
’Ádihodideesht’ih | sha’shin | nisingo | t’áadoo | ’atah | haasdzíi’ | da. |
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. | |
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble. |
Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Some observations
Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).
When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)
Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.
Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.
An example search has returned 50 entries
Shichʼéʼé kinaasdaʼgo bitsiiʼ shá beʼdíítłʼóół tʼáásh ʼáko?
1-daughter 3-reach.puberty.P-GO 3-hair 1-for 3-2-tie.F just-Q okayWhen my daughter has the puberty ceremony, will you tie her hair for me?
bookmark- I-A-Request, affirmative
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- -go verb and subordinating encliticfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -á for, for the benefit offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Future (F)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- -ísh enclitic for yes/no questionsfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
’Asdzą́ą́ ’éí ’ashkii ha’át’íí yeiní’ą́?
woman TOP boy what 3-to-3-3-move.SRO.P’Ałk’ésdisí naháłnii’go sitsilí dóó shideezhí ’aheełt’éego bá ’ahá níjaa’.
candy 3-1-buy.P-GO 1-little.brother and 1-little.sister RECP-equal-GO 3-for RECP-for 3-lie.aligned.PlO.NP-kéé’
Beehaz’áanii bik’ehgo baa hwiiníst’įįd.
laws 3-according-to-GO 3-about 3-discuss.PBéésh náábał dóó haa nízahdi nighan?
windmill and how 3-long.N-at 2-homeBéésh ’áłts’ózí bee ’atsidí bee ’aháníłne’.
wire hammer 3-with 3-1-beat.PCh’aa déyá ńt’éé shichídí bikee’ dilkǫǫh.
travel 1-go past 1-vehicle 3-tires worn.Chidí naat’a’íísh hooghan yikáá’góó ch’éta’ ’éí doodago daats’í dził yąąhgóó ch’ét’a’?
airplane-Q house 3-over-along 3-fly.P TOP or perhaps mountain 3-over-along 3-fly.PDa’ naadą́’ísh nee hólǫ́?
Q corn-Q 2-with 3-exist.NIdadidoołhįh
pl-3DO-2dpl-melt.it.Fdeiidą́
pl-3DO-1dpl-eat.it.Ideitł’ó
pl-3DO-3dpl-weave.it.Ideiyą́
pl-3DO-3dpl-eat.it.IDibé nee hólǫ́, ya’?
sheep 2-with 3-exist.NI Qdidiilyįh
3DO-1dpl-melt.it.Fdidííníłjéé’
3DO-2-start.fire.PDiné bikéyah bikáa’gi łáhágóó ninádahałtį́įh łeh.
Navajo 3-land 3-on-at a.few.places areal-rain.I usuallyDííshą’ látsíní háádę́ę́’ naa ninídee’?
this-Q bracelet where-from 2-to 3-arrive.PlO.PWhere did you get these bracelets?
bookmark- -shą’ enclitic for content questionsfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- háá-P.ENCLITIC wherefind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- -dę́ę́’ from a general location or point in space or time, also out of, off offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- location
- -aa tofind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- location
Dlǫ́ǫ́’ ba’áán góne’ yah ’adeeshnii’go dlǫ́’áyázhí shishhash.
prairie.dog 3-hole into down1-3.to.reach.out.hand prairie.dog-little 1-bite.Pdoo ’ashohodéébéézhgóó
Haa níníłnééz?
what 2-tall.relatively.NIHaidą́ą́’ ’a’áán góne’ naashnish ńt’éé’ --- doo shił yá’át’éeh da.
winter-past mine.shaft 1-work.I past neg 1-with 3-good.N negWhile I was working in the mine shaft last year and I didn’t like it (the experience).
bookmark- -dą́ą́’ past timefind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- -ne’ behindfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Imperfective (I) (∅, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- naashnish workfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- ńt’éé’ relates to past timefind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- doo --- da frame to negativize verbs and phrasesfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -ił withfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
Halah doo bííghah jiztį́į da.
opposite.sibling NEG 3-beside 4-lay.O NEGHastóíí dóó sáanii k’inááda’didlé.
3-men and 3-women planting.again.PL.RHáágóó lá díníyá?
where-to.Q 2-go.FHáíshą’ tsinaa’eeł ’áyiilaa?
who-Q boat 3-3-make.PHónáhoot’éhí ’índa ch’aa deeshááł nissin.
next.year until travel will.go.F 1-desire.K’aa’ísh ’aní’á biyaa doodago daats’í báhátis ’ayiist’oh ?
arrow-Q bridge 3-under or perhaps 3-over 3-3-shot.PDid s/he perhaps shoot arrows under or over the bridge?
bookmark- -ísh enclitic for yes/no questionsfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- doodago particle orfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- daats’í particle for perhapsfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- -yaa under, beneath, downfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- location
- -tis overfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- location
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’adisht’oh be an archer, shoot arrowsfind in Navajo Verb Modes
K’os jóhonaa’éí yich’ą́ą́h ’i’ííjool.
cloud sun 3-protect 3-drift.Pnijiskáá’
3DO-4-investigate.it.PShilééchąą’í yázhí shikéé’ yildlosh ńt’éé’ hashtł’ish yiih yildloozh.
1-dog little 1-behind 3-walk.Prog past mud 3-into 3-walk.PShilééchąą’í yázhí táa’go tsásk’eh yiyaa ’ahííjéé’.
1-dog small three-comp bed 3-under 3-lie.pl.NPShiyáázh nihił ’oołbąs dooleeł.
1-son 1pl-with 3-drive.Prog will.beShizhé’éésh łį́į́’ yiyííshǫǫdę́ę ’ayóó ’eelwod?
1-father horse-Q 3-3-tame.P-COMP.past really 3-run.away.PShínaaí shich’ą́ą́h naaghá.
1-older.brother 1-protect 3-go.CIT’ah ’ałk’idídą́ą́’ ’éí Diné tát’áá góyaa kéédahat’íinii t’éiyá díí tábąąhgóó bidáda’ak’eh naaznil ńt’éé’.
still quite.long.ago the people water-near areal-down pl-3-reside.NI-NOM only this water-edge-toward farm 3-lie.PlO.SPN pastT’áadoo hoshíníkéhé.
T’ÁADOO 2-scold.NI-ÍT’áá ’íídą́ą́’ ła’ nímasii bik’ééłgizh.
already some potato 3-1-peel.PT’áá ká ’ooshháásh.
neg 1-go.to.sleep.OT’áádoo shich’į’ béésh nídiiłts’į́hí
NEG 1-to phone 2-call.R-ÍTó tsíídkáá’ didíkaah.
water charcoal-on start-3-2-put.I.OCyíní’aal
3DO-2-chew.it.PŁeechaʼí ʼóyą́ą́, éí nabídishgizh.
Dog 3-eat.O TOPIC 3-surgery.PʼAzhishgóó déyá, sis łigaii shaʼ díílééł.
dance-to 1-go.F belt silver 1-borrow3-lend.SFO.FI am going to the song and dance, will you lend me your belt?
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