Introduction to Conjunctions
This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.
This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.
Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.
Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:
The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:
Joe | hataał. |
Joe | 3-sing.CI |
Joe is singing. |
*Joe | Louise | hataał. |
Joe | Louise | 3-sing.CI |
Joe Louise is singing. |
Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.
In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. |
Joe | and | Louise | and | Kii | pl-3-sing.CI |
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing. |
The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ | dóó | tsédáajį’ | ninish’na’. |
cave-from | and | cliff-to | 1-crawl.P |
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff. |
Na’ná’á | biyaa | góne’ | dóó | báhátis | ’adiłt’oh. | |
bridge | 3-under | below | and | 3-across | 3-3-shoot.P | |
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it. |
Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:
Kin | Łánídi | naashnish | háálá | ’áadi | shaghan. |
Flagstaff | 1-work.I | because | there | 1-live.NI | |
I work in Flagstaff because I live there. |
Kin | bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ | hadah | ’adzííłhaal | ndi | t’áadoo | ’ádadénih | da. |
house | 3-to-from | down | 1-tumble.P | but | NEG | RFLX-1-hurt.P | NEG |
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt. |
The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).
Navajo | English | Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? | categories that can be conjoined |
---|---|---|---|
dóó | ‘and’/‘and then’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP |
’áádóó | ‘and then’ | yes | clause |
’áko | ‘so, so that, so then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ’índa | ‘when, then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ndi | ‘even so, even then’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ | ‘then maybe/ then probably’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ ’índa | ‘then only’ | yes | clause |
doodago | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
doodaii’ | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
-go | no | clause, NP | |
háálá | ‘for, because’ | yes | clause |
-ii’ | ‘and, and thereupon’ | yes | clause |
’índa | ‘and only then’ | no | clause |
léi’ | ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ | yes | clause |
ndi | ‘but’ | yes | clause |
’azhą́…ndi | ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ | yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) | clause |
ńt’éé’ | past | maybe | clause |
yę́ędą́ą́’ | past | no | clause |
- NP
- noun phrase
- PP
- postpositional phrase
- EP
- postpositional enclitic phrase
With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.
Shilééchąą’í | bił | na’nishkaadgo | jooł | bá | ’abíńjíshhałgo | yikéé’ | náádiilwo’. |
1-dog | 3-with | 1-herd.CI | ball | 3-for | 3-1-bat.R-GO | 3-after | 3-run.R |
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them. |
The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:
’Ádihodideesht’ih | sha’shin | nisingo | t’áadoo | ’atah | haasdzíi’ | da. |
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. | |
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble. |
Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Some observations
Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).
When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)
Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.
Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.
An example search has returned 50 entries
’Ahwééh yishdlį́į́h ’áádóó naanishgóó yishááh.
coffee 3-1-drink.U and.then work-toward 3-1-go.U’Atsiniltł’ish dóó tó dayókeedígíí baa ’áłah ’aleeh lá.
electricity and water pl-3-request.I-NOM 3-for meeting DISC’Azhą́ hasistih ndi ’ayóo ’eesh’į́.
even.though 1-be.old.P even.though very 3-1-see.Prog’Azhą́ shaa jidiijéé' ndi, t'áá hwéé deeshwoł.
even.though 1-from-4-start-run.P just but 1-run.F’Ałk’idą́ą́’ tł’oh naadą́ą́’ dant’į́įhgo łį́į́’ doodaii’ béégashii da há hada’ał’éés ńt’éé’.
long.ago grass corn 3-ripen.I-GO horse or cow etc. 4-for 3-stomp.I past’Ííyą́ą́’ dóó bik’ijį’ tsinyaagi nétį́į́ dóó ’iiłhaazh.
1-eat.P and 3-after tree-under-at.spec 1-lie.down.P and 1-sleep.P’Ííłta’ dóó ’iiłghaazh.
1-read.P CONJ 1-sleep.P’Ólta’góó daats’í deeshááł doodaii’ jooł bee nideeshneeł.
school-toward maybe 1-walk.F or ball 3-with 1-play.FÁt’ah ’índa shaa náádíídááł.
later 1-to again-2-come.FBichidí yichǫ’ yę́ędą́ą́’ ’ashkii t’áani’ nálwod.
3-vehicle 3-P-ruin past boy on.foot 3-P-returnBini’ íídeeshtah doodago ’éiyá yóó’ ’adeeshwoł.
let will-1-school or only away 1-off-run.PChidí binaashnish yę́ę ’áádóó t’óó ni’ kwíishłaa.
vehicle 3-1-work.CI past and.then just stop 1-stop.PChidí łizhinígíí doodago łigaaígíí daats’í nahideeshnih?
car black-nom or white-nom perhaps 3-2-buy.FDamóo yę́ędą́ą́’ Yootóógóó niséyá.
Sunday past Santa.Fe-to 1-go.PDamóogo ’áłah ’aleeh ’áko ’áadi nihaadíínááł.
Sunday 3-gather 3-be so there-at 1-Pl-to-2-arrive.FDiné nihaikaíígíí nihizaad nideilkaahgo ayóó bił danilį́ ’áko ndi doo ’akót’ée da.
people 1dpl-3-come.pl.P-COMP 1dpl-language pl-3-1-investigate.I-GO very 3-with pl-3-be.NI even so NEG thus-3-be.NI NEGDíí chidí ’ayóo dilwo’ ha’ní ’áko ndi doo baa jííníshłíi da.
this car very 3-fast 3-say.P CONJ NEG 3-about 4-1-rely.P NEGDoo hah shił ’ílwod da léi’ t’áá ’íídą́ą́’ da’oodą́ą́’ lá.
NEG quick me.with 3.drive.P NEG since already 3pl.eat.P discoverDíí séí dóó tsé yázhí ’ałtahígíí łeezh bikáa’gi naasaas ’áko shį́į́ doo hashtł’ish da doołeeł.
this sand and stone little mixed.together-NOM dirt 3-on-at 3-1-sprinkle.Prog then maybe NEG mud NEG futureHáí dahoneesná, Kinłánídę́ę́’ ’Óola yee ’ádadójíhígíí doodago Gah Bikee’ Taah Yí’áhídę́ę́’ Hado yee ’ádadójíhígíí daats’í?
who pl-3-win.P Denver-from nugget 3-with RFLX-pl-4-call.NI-nom or Florida-from heat 3-with RFLX-pl-4-call.NI-nom perhapsWhich team won? Denver Nuggets or Miami Heat.
bookmark- háí whofind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- -ee by means offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Neuter Imperfective (NI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- doodago or
- -ee by means offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- daats’í maybe, perhaps, possiblyfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
Jooł ’ahííłhan ’áádóó ’atiin dóó ’anít’i’ báhátis ’eelts’id.
ball 3-1-throw.P and.then road and fence 3-over 3-move.SRO.PK’ad ’ałníí’góó ’eeshtł’óół doo yę́ę ła’ damóo yę́ędą́ą́’ t’áadoo ’asétł’ǫ́ǫ da.
now half-toward 1-weave.Prog future past one Sunday when.past NEG 1-weave.P NEGI could have been halfway through weaving, but last week I didn’t weave at all.
bookmark- Progressive (Prog)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’ashtł’ó weavefind in Navajo Verb Modes
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’ashtł’ó weavefind in Navajo Verb Modes
- k’ad nowfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -góó to, toward, along, on, with a numeral it indicates a datefind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- goal
- -dą́ą́’ past timefind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- time
- yę́ędą́ą́’ past
Na’ná’á biyaa góne’ dóó báhátis ’adiłt’oh.
bridge 3-under below and 3-across 3-3-shoot.PNaʼahóóhai baa nídiikai ʼakó ʼakʼidahiʼniłí bee shíká ʼadíílwoł.
rodeo 3-about 1pl-do.F so saddle.blanket 3-with 1-after 2-help.FNáá’íídéeshtah nisin doodago t’óó siláogóó deeshááł.
again-1-go.school.F 1-want or merely military-to 1-go.FNeezdáago ’índa yiyííłtsą́.
3-sit.P-Comp only.then 3-3-see.PNida’iilyéego ’áłt’ąą yiską́ągo ’índa yínááł doo.
pass.pay.I-go after.all tomorrow only.then 2-come.Prog futureAfter all, you’ll finally show up for payday tomorrow.
bookmark- Imperfective (I) (∅, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- -go verb and subordinating encliticfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- ’áłt’ąą after all, in spite of unfortunatelyfind in Navajo Particle Lexicon
- yiską́ągo tomorrowfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- ’índa and only then
- Progressive (Prog)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- doo, dooleeł futurefind in Navajo Particle Lexicon
Nizhónígo ha’íí’ą́ yę́ędą́ą́’ ts'íiłgo da’ségis.
beautiful sunrise past quickly pl-3-1-wash.PNídeezidgo ’índa hoł ní’deeswod.
month-GO only.then 4-with 2-drive.back.FShicheii déidiiłjeeh’ii’, hoozdohgóó nahisiitą́.
1-grandfather 3-3-built.fire.P-and warm-to 3-sit.PShik’is bił ’ílyeed ’áko shį́į́ da’diidį́į́ł.
1-friend 3-with 3-drive CONJ 1-Pl-eat.FShimá sání dah díníilghaazh ’ayiila’ii’, nihí yaa néíni’ką́.
1-grandmother frybread 3-3-make.P-and 1.dpl under 3-3-place.PMy grandmother made frybread, and placed it in front of us.
bookmark- -ii’ and, and thereupon
- yaa down, downwardfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’ashłééh makefind in Navajo Verb Modes
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- baa’nishkah place it, put itfind in Navajo Verb Modes
Shimá tanaashgiizh ’áyiilaago ’áádóó deiilts’ee’.
1-mother pudding 3-make.P-GO and.then pl-3-1dpl-eat.MM.PShimá bighangóó shíni’ ńt’éé’ ch’ééh déyáago shił náhoogéé’.
1-mother 3-home-to 1-desire.to.go past in.vain 1-go.P-GO 1-with ho-become.lazy.XShį́įgo ch’ééh jiyáán yishį́į́h ’áádóó tó lą’í yishdlį́į́h.
summer-GO watermelon 3-1-eat.U and.then water lots 3-1-drink.USitsii’ ndeeshshoh léi’ tó ’anideizgiz lá.
1-hair 3-1-moist.F because water 3-turn.off.R DISCTsé binahjį’ kídíníikeeł dóó háádiilyįh.
rock 3-against 1du-sit.F and 1du-rest.FTsé nitsaa ’áko nidaaz.
stone 3-big CONJ 3-heavyTsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.PI crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.
bookmark- -dę́ę́’ from a general location or point in space or time, also out of, off offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- dóó and, and then
- -jį́’ up to, as far asfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ninish’nééh crawl to a pointfind in Navajo Verb Modes
Tsinaabąąs bee nida’abąąs yę́ędą́ą́’ shi’dizhchį́.
wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I past 1-pass-born.PYéego ’ííníłta’, she’awéé’, ’áko nizhónígo ni’dííłtah.
really 2-study.NI 1-baby so well 2-graduate.FGive education your best, my child, so that you can graduate.
bookmark