Introduction to Conjunctions

This lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. Conjunctions combine two or more sentences or phrases into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.

This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs, and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish coordination from subordination.

Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence the meaning of the conjunction.

Coordination is a kind of syntactic structure that allows two similar constituents to act as one. For example, Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below:

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(1)
Joe dóó Louise hataał.
Joe and Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe and Louise are singing.

The verb hataał is intransitive, meaning that it can have only one argument:

(2)
Joe hataał.
Joe 3-sing.CI
Joe is singing.
(3)
*Joe Louise hataał.
Joe Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe Louise is singing.

Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people, the sentence does not make sense because the verb is intransitive. Coordination, used in (1), allows two or more phrases to act as one.

In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will need to have a plural marker in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:

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(4)
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
Joe and Louise and Kii pl-3-sing.CI
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing.

The examples above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:

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(5)
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.

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(6)
Na’ná’á biyaa góne’ dóó báhátis ’adiłt’oh.
bridge 3-under below and 3-across 3-3-shoot.P
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it.

Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:

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(7)
Kin Łánídi naashnish háálá ’áadi shaghan.
Flagstaff 1-work.I because there 1-live.NI
I work in Flagstaff because I live there.

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(8)
Kin bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ hadah ’adzííłhaal ndi t’áadoo ’ádadénih da.
house 3-to-from down 1-tumble.P but NEG RFLX-1-hurt.P NEG
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt.

The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Navajo English Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? categories that can be conjoined
dóó ‘and’/‘and then’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP
’áádóó ‘and then’ yes clause
’áko ‘so, so that, so then’ yes clause
’áko ’índa ‘when, then’ yes clause
’áko ndi ‘even so, even then’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ‘then maybe/ then probably’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ’índa ‘then only’ yes clause
doodago ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
doodaii’ ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
-go no clause, NP
háálá ‘for, because’ yes clause
-ii’ ‘and, and thereupon’ yes clause
’índa ‘and only then’ no clause
léi’ ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ yes clause
ndi ‘but’ yes clause
’azhą́…ndi ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) clause
ńt’éé’ past maybe clause
yę́ędą́ą́’ past no clause
NP
noun phrase
PP
postpositional phrase
EP
postpositional enclitic phrase

Subordination is a different way that two sentences can be combined into one. The enclitic -go attached to the first sentence subordinates it to the second:

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(9)
Shilééchąą’í bił na’nishkaadgo jooł bá ’abíńjíshhałgo yikéé’ náádiilwo’.
1-dog 3-with 1-herd.CI ball 3-for 3-1-bat.R-GO 3-after 3-run.R
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them.

The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:

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(10)
’Ádihodideesht’ih sha’shin nisingo t’áadoo ’atah haasdzíi’ da.
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble.

Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Some observations

Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).

When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)

Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.

Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.

An example search has returned 50 entries

’Adą́ą́dą́ą́’ísh tł’óo’di nanilnishgo nee ’ałní’ní’ą́?

yesterday-Q outside-at 2-work.CI-GO 2-with noon

’Ak’ah kǫ’ dishtłi’go sédá.

candle 3-1-cause.burn.NI-GO 1-sit.SPN

’Azhą́ deesk’aaz ndi t’áá ’ákwíí jį́ na’nishkaad.

even. though 3-cold.SPN but just every day 1-herd CI

’Áádóó háajigo dah diníyá?

and.then which.way-GO start.off 2-go.I

’Áko ’índa ’ákǫ́ǫ́ dah diiyá.

after.that to.there start 1.go.I
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After that I went there.

’áyąą

-á

-ba’

-jį’

-k’ą́ą́h

-kéé’

-shą’

Béeso bá hooghan góne’ shił ha’ashch’ą́ą́l dóó ’azéé’ííł’íní bił yah ’ííyá.

money 3-for building inside 1-with 3-go.up.as.elevator.P and doctor 3-with into 1-GO.P

Béégashii yáázh bichá ninish’aah.

calf 3-bunch 3-1-put.I.SRO

bik’ídadeediz

pl-3DO-1dpl-wrap.it.around.it.P

bik’ídadohdis

pl-3DO-2dpl-wrap.it.around.it.I

bik’ízhdeezdiz

3DO-4-wrap.it.around.it.P

Da’ ’áájí ’ałdó’ ’áłah ’azlį́į́’?

Q that-side also meeting 1-happen.P

Da’ chidíísh bee hólǫ́ doodaii’ ni daats’í chidí nee hólǫ́?

Q car-Q 3-with 4-exist.NI or 2 maybe car 2-with 4-exist.NI

Da’ dibé nee hólǫ́?

Q sheep 2-with 3-exist.NI

Da’ dichinísh nínízin?

Q hunger-Q 2-feel.NI

Damóo yę́ędą́ą́’ dziłghą́ą́’dę́ę́’ shádí dóó ba’áłchíní bił ’adaashkai.

sunday past-time mountain top.of-from 1-elder.sister and 3-children 3-with downward-1-go.Pl.P
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Last Sunday I accompanied my older sister and her family down from the mountaintop.

didííłhįh

3DO-2-melt.it.F

Diné bikéyah bikáa’gi łáhágóó ninádahałtį́įh łeh.

Navajo 3-land 3-on-at a.few.places areal-rain.I usually

Diné nihaikaíígíí nihizaad nideilkaahgo ayóó bił danilį́ ’áko ndi doo ’akót’ée da.

people 1dpl-3-come.pl.P-COMP 1dpl-language pl-3-1-investigate.I-GO very 3-with pl-3-be.NI even so NEG thus-3-be.NI NEG
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The people who came to visit us believe that we are doing a great job investigating our language, but that is not the case.

Díí ’abíní dibé tóógóó neeshkał.

this morning sheep water-to 3-1-herd.Prog

Díí chąą’ shą’ háádę́ę́’ niníyęęzh?

this manure-Q where-from 3-ooze.P

Díí chizh shá ’ałk’íniishóósh.

this firewood 1-for 3-2-split.I
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Split these pieces of wood for me.

doo ’ashohodoobéézhgóó

Doo hanii kintahgóó díníyáa da nisin.

NEG contrary town-toward 2-start.go.P NEG 1-think.CI

doo yéé --- -í

Ha’át’íísh nizhé’é yaa naaghá?

what-Q 2-father 3-about 3-do.CI

haashgéésh

3DO-1-cut.it.out.I

hadanołchaad

pl-3DO-2dpl-card.it.(as.in.wool).I

hadeidoołtééł

pl-3DO-3dpl-carry.him/her.up.out.of.something.F

háidí

Hoozdohdi ’éí doo ’ashohodoobéézhgóó deesdoi.

Phoenix-at TOP extremely 3-hot.SPN

Kintahdę́ę́’ łį́į́’ sh nááldlosh.

town-from horse 1-with 3-run.CI

Mary ha’át’íí nayiisnii’?

Mary what 3-3-buy.P

Mary ha’át’íísh nayiisnii’?

Mary what-Q 3-to.buy.I

nidajilé

pl-3DO-4dpl-carry.a.ropelike.thing.around.I

nijizlá

3DO-4-carry.a.ropelike.thing.around.P

Shi’dizhchį́į́ yęędą́ą́’ ’éí tsinaabąąs dahólǫ́ nt’éé.

1-pass-born.P past TOP wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I pl-be.NI past
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Wagons were around during the time I was born.

Shínaaí tł’éédą́ą́’ hááhgóóshį́į́ Bilagáanak’ehjí bitsąąh yáłti’.

1-brother night-last somehow English 3-sleep 3-talk.P
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My older brother was really talking English in his sleep last night.

Shí Kinłánígóó shił ayóó ánízaad ’ako ndi sitsoi éí bił ayídi.

I Denver to 1-with 3-far.NI but 1-grandsongranddaughter 3-with nearby

T’áá ’ałkéé’ ’azee’ííł’íní bił yah ’adahaadzá.

just one-behind-another doctor 3-with into 1Dist-4-go.I

wooyą́ą́’

3DO-2dpl-eat.it.P

wołhį́į́h

3DO-2dpl-melt.it.(snow).I

yishhį́į́h

3DO-1-melt.it.(snow).I

Ániid iiyą́ą́ ’áko ndi t’ah dichin nisin.

Recently 1-eat.P even then still 3-hungry 1-want.NI