Introduction to Conjunctions
This lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. Conjunctions combine two or more sentences or phrases into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.
This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs, and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish coordination from subordination.
Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence the meaning of the conjunction.
Coordination is a kind of syntactic structure that allows two similar constituents to act as one. For example, Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below:
The verb hataał is intransitive, meaning that it can have only one argument:
Joe | hataał. |
Joe | 3-sing.CI |
Joe is singing. |
*Joe | Louise | hataał. |
Joe | Louise | 3-sing.CI |
Joe Louise is singing. |
Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people, the sentence does not make sense because the verb is intransitive. Coordination, used in (1), allows two or more phrases to act as one.
In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will need to have a plural marker in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. |
Joe | and | Louise | and | Kii | pl-3-sing.CI |
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing. |
The examples above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ | dóó | tsédáajį’ | ninish’na’. |
cave-from | and | cliff-to | 1-crawl.P |
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff. |
Na’ná’á | biyaa | góne’ | dóó | báhátis | ’adiłt’oh. | |
bridge | 3-under | below | and | 3-across | 3-3-shoot.P | |
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it. |
Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:
Kin | Łánídi | naashnish | háálá | ’áadi | shaghan. |
Flagstaff | 1-work.I | because | there | 1-live.NI | |
I work in Flagstaff because I live there. |
Kin | bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ | hadah | ’adzííłhaal | ndi | t’áadoo | ’ádadénih | da. |
house | 3-to-from | down | 1-tumble.P | but | NEG | RFLX-1-hurt.P | NEG |
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt. |
The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Navajo | English | Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? | categories that can be conjoined |
---|---|---|---|
dóó | ‘and’/‘and then’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP |
’áádóó | ‘and then’ | yes | clause |
’áko | ‘so, so that, so then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ’índa | ‘when, then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ndi | ‘even so, even then’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ | ‘then maybe/ then probably’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ ’índa | ‘then only’ | yes | clause |
doodago | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
doodaii’ | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
-go | no | clause, NP | |
háálá | ‘for, because’ | yes | clause |
-ii’ | ‘and, and thereupon’ | yes | clause |
’índa | ‘and only then’ | no | clause |
léi’ | ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ | yes | clause |
ndi | ‘but’ | yes | clause |
’azhą́…ndi | ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ | yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) | clause |
ńt’éé’ | past | maybe | clause |
yę́ędą́ą́’ | past | no | clause |
- NP
- noun phrase
- PP
- postpositional phrase
- EP
- postpositional enclitic phrase
Subordination is a different way that two sentences can be combined into one. The enclitic -go attached to the first sentence subordinates it to the second:
Shilééchąą’í | bił | na’nishkaadgo | jooł | bá | ’abíńjíshhałgo | yikéé’ | náádiilwo’. |
1-dog | 3-with | 1-herd.CI | ball | 3-for | 3-1-bat.R-GO | 3-after | 3-run.R |
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them. |
The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:
’Ádihodideesht’ih | sha’shin | nisingo | t’áadoo | ’atah | haasdzíi’ | da. |
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. | |
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble. |
Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Some observations
Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).
When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)
Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.
Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.
An example search has returned 50 entries
’Adą́ą́dą́ą́’ísh tł’óo’di nanilnishgo nee ’ałní’ní’ą́?
yesterday-Q outside-at 2-work.CI-GO 2-with noonYesterday were you working outside up to noon?
bookmark- -ísh enclitic for yes/no questionsfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- Imperfective (I) (∅, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- naashnish workfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- ałní’ní’ą́ noonfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -di atfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- location
- -ee by means offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- instrumental
’Ak’ah kǫ’ dishtłi’go sédá.
candle 3-1-cause.burn.NI-GO 1-sit.SPN’Azhą́ deesk’aaz ndi t’áá ’ákwíí jį́ na’nishkaad.
even. though 3-cold.SPN but just every day 1-herd CI’Áádóó háajigo dah diníyá?
and.then which.way-GO start.off 2-go.I’Áko ’índa ’ákǫ́ǫ́ dah diiyá.
after.that to.there start 1.go.I-á
for, for the benefit of
bookmark-ba’
-jį’
-k’ą́ą́h
-kéé’
-shą’
Béeso bá hooghan góne’ shił ha’ashch’ą́ą́l dóó ’azéé’ííł’íní bił yah ’ííyá.
money 3-for building inside 1-with 3-go.up.as.elevator.P and doctor 3-with into 1-GO.PBéégashii yáázh bichá ninish’aah.
calf 3-bunch 3-1-put.I.SRObik’ídadeediz
pl-3DO-1dpl-wrap.it.around.it.Pbik’ídadohdis
pl-3DO-2dpl-wrap.it.around.it.Ibik’ízhdeezdiz
3DO-4-wrap.it.around.it.PDa’ ’áájí ’ałdó’ ’áłah ’azlį́į́’?
Q that-side also meeting 1-happen.PWas there also a meeting there?
bookmark- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’aleeh happen, occurfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- dó’, ’ałdó’ too, alsofind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- da’ particle for yes/no questionsfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- -jí on the side of, in the direction of, in the manner offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- location
Da’ chidíísh bee hólǫ́ doodaii’ ni daats’í chidí nee hólǫ́?
Q car-Q 3-with 4-exist.NI or 2 maybe car 2-with 4-exist.NIDa’ dichinísh nínízin?
Q hunger-Q 2-feel.NIDamóo yę́ędą́ą́’ dziłghą́ą́’dę́ę́’ shádí dóó ba’áłchíní bił ’adaashkai.
sunday past-time mountain top.of-from 1-elder.sister and 3-children 3-with downward-1-go.Pl.Pdidííłhįh
3DO-2-melt.it.FDiné bikéyah bikáa’gi łáhágóó ninádahałtį́įh łeh.
Navajo 3-land 3-on-at a.few.places areal-rain.I usuallyDiné nihaikaíígíí nihizaad nideilkaahgo ayóó bił danilį́ ’áko ndi doo ’akót’ée da.
people 1dpl-3-come.pl.P-COMP 1dpl-language pl-3-1-investigate.I-GO very 3-with pl-3-be.NI even so NEG thus-3-be.NI NEGDíí ’abíní dibé tóógóó neeshkał.
this morning sheep water-to 3-1-herd.ProgDíí chąą’ shą’ háádę́ę́’ niníyęęzh?
this manure-Q where-from 3-ooze.PDíí chizh shá ’ałk’íniishóósh.
this firewood 1-for 3-2-split.Idoo ’ashohodoobéézhgóó
Doo hanii kintahgóó díníyáa da nisin.
NEG contrary town-toward 2-start.go.P NEG 1-think.CII thought you weren’t going to town.
bookmark- doo --- da frame to negativize verbs and phrasesfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- hanii expresses contrarinessfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -góó to, toward, along, on, with a numeral it indicates a datefind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- goal
- Neuter Imperfective (NI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- nisin think, wantfind in Navajo Verb Modes
Ha’át’íísh nizhé’é yaa naaghá?
what-Q 2-father 3-about 3-do.CIhaashgéésh
3DO-1-cut.it.out.Ihadeidoołtééł
pl-3DO-3dpl-carry.him/her.up.out.of.something.Fcarry him/her up out of something, 3rd person plural
bookmarkháidí
Hoozdohdi ’éí doo ’ashohodoobéézhgóó deesdoi.
Phoenix-at TOP extremely 3-hot.SPNKintahdę́ę́’ łį́į́’ shił nááldlosh.
town-from horse 1-with 3-run.CIMary ha’át’íí nayiisnii’?
Mary what 3-3-buy.Pnidajilé
pl-3DO-4dpl-carry.a.ropelike.thing.around.Icarry a ropelike thing around, 4th person plural
bookmarkShi’dizhchį́į́ yęędą́ą́’ ’éí tsinaabąąs dahólǫ́ nt’éé.
1-pass-born.P past TOP wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I pl-be.NI pastShínaaí tł’éédą́ą́’ hááhgóóshį́į́ Bilagáanak’ehjí bitsąąh yáłti’.
1-brother night-last somehow English 3-sleep 3-talk.PShí Kinłánígóó shił ayóó ánízaad ’ako ndi sitsoi éí bił ayídi.
I Denver to 1-with 3-far.NI but 1-grandsongranddaughter 3-with nearbyDenver is too far with me but to my grandson, it is close or nearby.
bookmark- -ił withfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- ’ayóigo very, extremelyfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -á for, for the benefit offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- -á for, for the benefit offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- -ił withfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- -di atfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
T’áá ’ałkéé’ ’azee’ííł’íní bił yah ’adahaadzá.
just one-behind-another doctor 3-with into 1Dist-4-go.Iwooyą́ą́’
3DO-2dpl-eat.it.Pwołhį́į́h
3DO-2dpl-melt.it.(snow).Iyishhį́į́h
3DO-1-melt.it.(snow).IÁniid iiyą́ą́ ’áko ndi t’ah dichin nisin.
Recently 1-eat.P even then still 3-hungry 1-want.NII recently ate even then I am still hungry.
bookmark