Introduction to Conjunctions
This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.
This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.
Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.
Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:
The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:
| Joe | hataał. |
| Joe | 3-sing.CI |
| Joe is singing. | |
| *Joe | Louise | hataał. |
| Joe | Louise | 3-sing.CI |
| Joe Louise is singing. | ||
Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.
In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:
| Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. |
| Joe | and | Louise | and | Kii | pl-3-sing.CI |
| Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing. | |||||
The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:
| Tsé’áándę́ę́’ | dóó | tsédáajį’ | ninish’na’. |
| cave-from | and | cliff-to | 1-crawl.P |
| I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff. | |||
| Na’ná’á | biyaa | góne’ | dóó | báhátis | ’adiłt’oh. | |
| bridge | 3-under | below | and | 3-across | 3-3-shoot.P | |
| S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it. | ||||||
Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:
| Kin | Łánídi | naashnish | háálá | ’áadi | shaghan. |
| Flagstaff | 1-work.I | because | there | 1-live.NI | |
| I work in Flagstaff because I live there. | |||||
| Kin | bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ | hadah | ’adzííłhaal | ndi | t’áadoo | ’ádadénih | da. |
| house | 3-to-from | down | 1-tumble.P | but | NEG | RFLX-1-hurt.P | NEG |
| I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt. | |||||||
The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).
| Navajo | English | Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? | categories that can be conjoined |
|---|---|---|---|
| dóó | ‘and’/‘and then’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP |
| ’áádóó | ‘and then’ | yes | clause |
| ’áko | ‘so, so that, so then’ | yes | clause |
| ’áko ’índa | ‘when, then’ | yes | clause |
| ’áko ndi | ‘even so, even then’ | yes | clause |
| ’áko shį́į́ | ‘then maybe/ then probably’ | yes | clause |
| ’áko shį́į́ ’índa | ‘then only’ | yes | clause |
| doodago | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
| doodaii’ | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
| -go | no | clause, NP | |
| háálá | ‘for, because’ | yes | clause |
| -ii’ | ‘and, and thereupon’ | yes | clause |
| ’índa | ‘and only then’ | no | clause |
| léi’ | ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ | yes | clause |
| ndi | ‘but’ | yes | clause |
| ’azhą́…ndi | ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ | yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) | clause |
| ńt’éé’ | past | maybe | clause |
| yę́ędą́ą́’ | past | no | clause |
- NP
- noun phrase
- PP
- postpositional phrase
- EP
- postpositional enclitic phrase
With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.
| Shilééchąą’í | bił | na’nishkaadgo | jooł | bá | ’abíńjíshhałgo | yikéé’ | náádiilwo’. |
| 1-dog | 3-with | 1-herd.CI | ball | 3-for | 3-1-bat.R-GO | 3-after | 3-run.R |
| When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them. | |||||||
The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:
| ’Ádihodideesht’ih | sha’shin | nisingo | t’áadoo | ’atah | haasdzíi’ | da. |
| Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. | |
| I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble. | ||||||
Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Some observations
Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).
When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)
Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.
Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.
An example search has returned 50 entries
’Ak’éégo ’éí chizh niléí keehaidi ninahdahiigééh nt’éé’.
autumn-GO that wood over.there winter.camp-at pl-3-1-unload.P past’Azhą́ deesk’aaz ndi t’áá ’ákwíí jį́ na’nishkaad.
even. though 3-cold.SPN but just every day 1-herd CI’Azhą́ hasistih ndi t’ah honishyóí.
even.though 1-be.old-P even.though still 1-be.energetic.NI’Ałk’idą́ą́’ tł’oh naadą́ą́’ dant’į́įhgo łį́į́’ doodaii’ béégashii da há hadahwiił’éés ńt’éé’.
long.ago grass corn 3-ripen.I-GO horse or cow etc. 4-for 3-stomp.I past’Áko ’índa yáníłti’ bidííniid.
after.that 2.talk.I 3-1.told.P’Áłtsé biba’ dooleeł ’áko shį́į́ ’índa nihił dah adidoolwoł.
first 3.for will until then only 1.with start 3-drive.F’Áłtsé da’ííyą́ą́’ ’áko shį́į́ ’índa hooghandi nákai.
first 3.eat.P until then only home.at 3.pl.return.P’Ííłta’ dóó ’iiłghaazh.
1-read.P CONJ 1-sleep.P’Ólta’góó daats’í deeshááł doodaii’ jooł bee nideeshneeł.
school-toward maybe 1-walk.F or ball 3-with 1-play.F’Ániid ’iiyą́ą́’ ’áko ndi t’ah dichin nisin.
recently 1-eat.P even then still 3-hungry 1-want.NII recently ate even then I am still hungry.
bookmark- ’ániidígo recently, not long agofind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’áko ndi even so, even then
- -t’ah in a recess, pocket or enclosed space, undercoverfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Neuter Imperfective (NI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- nisin think, wantfind in Navajo Verb Modes
Bááh łikanígíí ła’ nisin háálá ayóo łikan.
bread 3-be.sweet.NI.NOM some 3-1-want.NI because very 3-be.sweet.NIChidí bitoo’ hadi’dííłbį́į́łgo ’índa Na’azhǫǫshgóó diikah.
car 3-fuel 3.fill.up-GO.P only.then casino-GOO 3pl.go.FChidí łizhinígíí doodago łigaaígíí daats’í nahideeshnih?
car black-nom or white-nom perhaps 3-2-buy.FDaango k’ééda’dilyééh nt’éé’ t’áádoo k’ééda’diilyáa da.
spring-GO 3-plant.R past NEG 3-3-plant.P NEGWe used to plant in the springtime, but this time we didn’t.
bookmark- -go verb and subordinating encliticfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Iterative (R)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- k’idishłé plant itfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- ńt’éé’ past
- ńt’éé’ relates to past timefind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- t’áadoo notfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- k’idishłé plant itfind in Navajo Verb Modes
Damóogo ’áłah ’aleeh ’áko ’áadi nihaadíínááł.
Sunday 3-gather 3-be so there-at 1-Pl-to-2-arrive.FDiné bikéyah bikáa’gi ndahonidzood yę́ędą́ą́’ Naatsis’áán hoolyéégóó niha’áłchíní bił ’adahineet’į́į́’.
Navajo 3-land 3-on-at pl-areal-3-flee.pl.P past Navajo.Mountain areal-be.called.NI-to 1pl-children 3-with pl-1dpl-sneak.off.PAt the time people were on the run in Navajoland, fleeing in small groups, we sneaked away with our children one group after another, to Navajo Mountain.
bookmark- -káá’ on, on top offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- location
- -gi atfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- location
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- yę́ędą́ą́’ past
- Neuter Imperfective (NI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- -ił withfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- accompaniment
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
Diné ła’ nizhónígo kéédahojit’į́ danihó’ní, ’áko ndi doo ’ákót’ée da.
people some 3-nice.NI-GO pl-4-3-reside.NI 3-Pl. so but NEG 4-think.CI NEGDíí éé’ shił nizhónígo nahideeshniih nisin nt’éé’ ’áko ndi ayóo ilį́į́ lá.
this clothing 1-with 3-like-GO 3-1-buy.F 1-think.Cl Past even then very 3-expensive DiscI want to buy this dress because I like it but it is expensive.
bookmark- Neuter Imperfective (NI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- -ił withfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Future (F)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- nahashniih buy, sellfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- Continuative Imperfective (CI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- nisin think, wantfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- ńt’éé’ relates to past timefind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- ’áko ndi even so, even then
- lá I discoveredfind in Navajo Particle Lexicon
Doo ’áádę́ę́’ naagháa da nít’éé’ ’áłt’ąą nida’iilyéego ’índa níyá.
NEG there.from 3-go.about.I NEG past after.all pass.pay.I-go only.then 3-arrive.PHe never used to come, suddenly he’s here since it’s payday.
bookmark- doo --- da frame to negativize verbs and phrasesfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -dę́ę́’ from a general location or point in space or time, also out of, off offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- ńt’éé’ relates to past timefind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- ’áłt’ąą after all, in spite of unfortunatelyfind in Navajo Particle Lexicon
- ’índa and only then
Doo hazhó’ó ’adiist’a’ da léi’ t’óó shaa daadloh.
NEG good reflex-1.hear.NI NEG since just me.at pl.3.laugh.IHágo daaníigo ’áko ’índa ’ákǫ́ǫ́ níyá.
come.here 3.say.P-GO after.that towards 1.arrive.PHáí dahoneesná, Kinłánídę́ę́’ ’Óola yee ’ádadójíhígíí doodago Gah Bikee’ Taah Yí’áhídę́ę́’ Hado yee ’ádadójíhígíí daats’í?
who pl-3-win.P Denver-from nugget 3-with RFLX-pl-4-call.NI-nom or Florida-from heat 3-with RFLX-pl-4-call.NI-nom perhapsWhich team won? Denver Nuggets or Miami Heat.
bookmark- háí whofind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- -ee by means offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Neuter Imperfective (NI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- doodago or
- -ee by means offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- daats’í maybe, perhaps, possiblyfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
Hííłch’į’go ’íinda ta’iideeshnih.
evening.GO until 1-mix.dough.FHooghan ’adeeshłííł ndi tsineheeshjíí’ shee ’ádin.
hogan 1-build.F but lumber 1-with 3-none.NIHooghan bikáá’ dah si’ánígíí bíyah da’nii’áago ’ádíílį́į́ł ’áko hooghan doo ’ałhiih nídoołdas da.
hogan 3-on up 3-sit.SPN-ÍGÍÍ 3-under pl-3-extend.NP-GO 3-2-make.F so hogan NEG RECIP-3-collapse.F NEGUse strong pillars to build the hogan so that the roof will not cave in.
bookmark- -káá’ on, on top offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- dah up at an elevation, off, static, holdingfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Si-Perfective Neuter (SPN)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- -yah under, beneathfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Neuter Perfective (NP)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- -go verb and subordinating encliticfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Future (F)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’áko so, so that, so then
- doo --- da frame to negativize verbs and phrasesfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
Jooł ’ahííłhan ’áádóó ’atiin dóó ’anít’i’ báhátis ’eelts’id.
ball 3-1-throw.P and.then road and fence 3-over 3-move.SRO.PK’idadeelyáá nit’éé’ t’óó daazgan, háálá doo nahałtin da.
1pl-plant.P past just 3pl-dry.SPN, because NEG 3-rain.CI NEGWe planted but they just shriveled up, because of the lack of rain.
bookmark- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- k’idishłé plant itfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- ńt’éé’ relates to past timefind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Si-Perfective Neuter (SPN)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- háálá for, because
- doo --- da frame to negativize verbs and phrasesfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Continuative Imperfective (CI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
Kii łį́į́’ yizloh léi’ yí’diiłííd.
Kii horse 3-3-rope.SP CONJ 3-3-brand.IMósí dóó łééchąą’í baníłtsoodii, bił dahózhǫ́.
cat dog 3-1-feed.P-and 3-with PL-3-happy.NINanise’ígíí ch’iyáán daohsą́ ’áko bee nihits’íís bitah yá’ádahoot’ééh dooleeł.
plant-ÍGÍÍ food pl-2-eat.I so 3-with 2pl-body 3-among pl-3-good.NI futureNizhónígo ha’íí’ą́ yę́ędą́ą́’ sxíiłgo da’ségis.
beautiful sunrise past quickly pl-3-1-wash.PNizhónígo ha’íí’ą́ yę́ędą́ą́’ ts’íiłgo da’ségis.
beautiful sunrise past quickly pl-3-1-wash.PNíléígóó díní’į́į́’ shidíiniidgo ’áádóó ’áajigo déé’į́į́’.
over.there-toward 2-look.I 1-3-say.P-GO and.then that.way-toward 1-look.PShik’is bił ’ílyeed ’áko shį́į́ da’diidį́į́ł.
1-friend 3-with 3-drive CONJ 1-Pl-eat.FShimá bílájish chiideesh’įįł, háálá ’ayóo deesk’aaz.
1-mother 3-gloves 3-1-use.F because very 3-be.cold.PShimá sání dah díníilghaazh ’ayiila’ii’, nihí yaa néíni’ką́.
1-grandmother frybread 3-3-make.P-and 1.dpl under 3-3-place.PMy grandmother made frybread, and placed it in front of us.
bookmark- -ii’ and, and thereupon
- yaa down, downwardfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’ashłééh makefind in Navajo Verb Modes
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- baa’nishkah place it, put itfind in Navajo Verb Modes
Shiyáázh Damóogo ’índa ’áádę́ę́’ nídeesdzá
1-son Sunday.GO will.be from 2-returning.FShíká ’anánílwo’ doodaii’ t’áadoo shaa nánít’íní.
1-for 3-run.R or just-neg 1-to 2-1-bother.IShoo, nahachagii t’óó ’ahayóí nihaa nínáá lá; ’áko shį́į́ baa ’ákodanosin dooleeł.
hey.look grasshopper merely many 1pl-to 3-migrate.P mirative then maybe 3-of 2pl-be.aware.NI FUTHey look! We have alot of grasshoppers migrating through here; be aware of them.
bookmark- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- -aa tofind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- ’áko shį́į́ then maybe, then probably
- -aa tofind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Neuter Imperfective (NI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’áhonissin be awarefind in Navajo Verb Modes
- dooleeł futurefind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.PI crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.
bookmark- -dę́ę́’ from a general location or point in space or time, also out of, off offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- dóó and, and then
- -jį́’ up to, as far asfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ninish’nééh crawl to a pointfind in Navajo Verb Modes




