Introduction to Conjunctions

This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.

This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.

Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.

Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:

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(1)
Joe dóó Louise hataał.
Joe and Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe and Louise are singing.

The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:

(2)
Joe hataał.
Joe 3-sing.CI
Joe is singing.
(3)
*Joe Louise hataał.
Joe Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe Louise is singing.

Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.

In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:

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(4)
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
Joe and Louise and Kii pl-3-sing.CI
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing.

The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:

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(5)
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.

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(6)
Na’ná’á biyaa góne’ dóó báhátis ’adiłt’oh.
bridge 3-under below and 3-across 3-3-shoot.P
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it.

Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:

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(7)
Kin Łánídi naashnish háálá ’áadi shaghan.
Flagstaff 1-work.I because there 1-live.NI
I work in Flagstaff because I live there.

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(8)
Kin bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ hadah ’adzííłhaal ndi t’áadoo ’ádadénih da.
house 3-to-from down 1-tumble.P but NEG RFLX-1-hurt.P NEG
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt.

The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).

Navajo English Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? categories that can be conjoined
dóó ‘and’/‘and then’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP
’áádóó ‘and then’ yes clause
’áko ‘so, so that, so then’ yes clause
’áko ’índa ‘when, then’ yes clause
’áko ndi ‘even so, even then’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ‘then maybe/ then probably’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ’índa ‘then only’ yes clause
doodago ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
doodaii’ ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
-go no clause, NP
háálá ‘for, because’ yes clause
-ii’ ‘and, and thereupon’ yes clause
’índa ‘and only then’ no clause
léi’ ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ yes clause
ndi ‘but’ yes clause
’azhą́…ndi ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) clause
ńt’éé’ past maybe clause
yę́ędą́ą́’ past no clause
NP
noun phrase
PP
postpositional phrase
EP
postpositional enclitic phrase

With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.

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(9)
Shilééchąą’í bił na’nishkaadgo jooł bá ’abíńjíshhałgo yikéé’ náádiilwo’.
1-dog 3-with 1-herd.CI ball 3-for 3-1-bat.R-GO 3-after 3-run.R
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them.

The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:

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(10)
’Ádihodideesht’ih sha’shin nisingo t’áadoo ’atah haasdzíi’ da.
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble.

Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Some observations

Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).

When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)

Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.

Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.

An example search has returned 50 entries

’Ach’ą́ nisin ndi shidíbé nído’ahígíí ’ádin.

meat.hunger 1-want.NI but 1-sheep 4-butcher.F 3-1.none.NI

’Ak’éégo ’éí chizh niléí keehaidi ninahdahiigééh nt’éé’.

autumn-GO that wood over.there winter.camp-at pl-3-1-unload.P past

’Ashkii bi’éé’ hazhó’ó ’ayíyiischid dóó ’ólta’ góne’ yah ’ííyá.

boy 3-shirt nicely 3-3-tuck.in.P and 3-go.P

’Atsiniltł’ish dóó tó dayókeedígíí baa ’áłah ’aleeh lá.

electricity and water pl-3-request.I-NOM 3-for meeting DISC

’Azhą́ ts’aa’ nízhóní ndi ’áłts’íísí.

even.though basket 3-be.pretty.NI even.though 3-be.small.NI

’Ałah ’aleehgóó deesháál nínízinísh doodago béésh nitsíkeesí daats’í bee nidoonááł ’éí doodago t’áá hooghanídi daats’í KTNN yídíiłts’iił?

meeting-to 1-go-F 3-2 want.NI-Q or computer possibly 2-watch.F or just home-at possibly KTNN 3-2-listen.F

’Ałk’idą́ą́’ dahane’ yę́ę k’ad ’índa baa nídahane’.

past pl-3.tell.story.I old now until.now 3-for pl-3.tell.story.I
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In the past, all those old stories are now being retold.

’Áádóó ch’íníyá nít’ę́ę́’ shik’ijiijéé’.

and.then out-1-go.P past 1-on-4-attack.pl.P
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And then I went out, and they attacked me.

’Áádóó hainidzaa?

and.then what-3-2-do.P

’áko shį́į́ ’índa

CONJ

’Áłtsé nééł’į́į́’ ’áko ’índa ’ííyą́ą́’.

first 1-look.P after.that 1.eat.P
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I looked at it first, after that I ate it.

-ii’

CONJ
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and, and thereupon

Bááh łikanígíí ła’ nisin háálá ayóo łikan.

bread 3-be.sweet.NI.NOM some 3-1-want.NI because very 3-be.sweet.NI
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I want some cake because it is really good.

Bichidí yichǫ’ yę́ędą́ą́’ ’ashkii t’áani’ nálwod.

3-vehicle 3-P-ruin past boy on.foot 3-P-return
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The boy returned on foot when his car broke down.

Ch’aa dé ńt’éé shichídí bikee’ dilkǫǫh.

travel 1-go past 1-vehicle 3-tires worn.
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I was going to travel however my vehicle tires are worn.

Chidí ’anáshdlééh, háálá doo naalnish da.

car 3-1-repair.I because NEG 3-work.I NEG

Diné bikéyah bikáa’gi ndahonidzood yę́ędą́ą́’ Naatsis’áán hoolyégóó niha’áłchíní bił ’adahineet’į́į́’.

Navajo 3-land 3-on-at pl-areal-3-flee.pl.P past Navajo.Mountain areal-be.called.NI-to 1pl-children 3-with pl-1dpl-sneak.off.P

Diné nishłį́ndi Bilaagana bizaad t’éí bee yáshti’.

Navajo 1-be.NI but English language only 3-with 1-speak.I

Díí kwe’é biká’ígíí ’índa bik’i’diitą́.

this here 3-on.NOM until.then 3-1.understand.P
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All this writing I now understand it.

Díí tsídii bit’oh yisdádeeshjoł, ’áko shį́į́ kónááhoot’éhé tsídii ła’ náábít’oh dooleeł.

this bird 3-nest 3-1-save.F-NCM then maybe next.year bird some again-3-nest future
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I’ll save this bird nest (from destruction) and it will probably serve another bird next year.

Doo hah shił ’ílwod da léi’ t’áá ’íídą́ą́’ da’oodą́ą́’ lá.

NEG quick me.with 3.drive.P NEG since already 3pl.eat.P discover
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Since I was late they ate without me.

Doo hazhó’ó ’adiist’a’ da léi’ t’óó shaa daadloh.

NEG good reflex-1.hear.NI NEG since just me.at pl.3.laugh.I
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They really laughed at me since I can hardly hear.

dóó

CONJ

Hoozdohgóó daats’í deeshááł ’éí doodaii’ Be’eldííldahsínilgóó deeshááł.

Phoenix-toward maybe 1-walk.F or Albuquerque-toward 1-walk.F

Jooł ’ahííłhan ’áádóó ’atiin dóó ’anít’i’ báhátis ’eelts’id.

ball 3-1-throw.P and.then road and fence 3-over 3-move.SRO.P

K’ad ’ałníí’góó ’eeshtł’óół doo yę́ę ła’ damóo yę́ędą́ą́’ t’áadoo ’asétł’ǫ́ǫ da.

now half-toward 1-weave.Prog future past one Sunday when.past NEG 1-weave.P NEG

K’idadeelyáá nit’éé’ t’óó daazgan, háálá doo nahałtin da.

1pl-plant.P past just 3pl-dry.SPN, because NEG 3-rain.CI NEG

Kin bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ hadah ’adzííłhaal ndi t’áadoo ’ádadénih da.

house 3-to-from down 1-tumble.P but NEG RFLX-1-hurt.P NEG

Kin Łánídi naashnish háálá ’áadi shaghan.

Flagstaff 1-work.I because there 1-live.NI

Mósí dóó łeechą́ą́’ii’ baniłts’ood’ii’, bił hózhǫ́.

cat dog 3-1-feed.P-and 3-with 3-happy.NI

Naakidi ’oolkiłgo ’áko ’índa ’áajigo dah diiyá.

two.at time-GO after.that. towards.GO start 1.go.I
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After 2 o’clock I started to go that way.

Nanise’ígíí ch’iiyáán daohsą́ ’áko bee nihits’íís bitah ya’ádahoot’ééh dooleeł.

plant-ÍGÍÍ food pl-2-eat.I so 3-with 2pl-body 3-among pl-3-good.NI future

Naʼahóóhai baa nídiikai ʼakó ʼakʼidahiʼniłí bee shí ʼadíílwoł.

rodeo 3-about 1pl-do.pl.F so saddle.blanket 3-with 1-after 2-help.F

Nizhónígo ha’íí’ą́ yę́ędą́ą́’ sxíiłgo da’ségis.

beautiful sunrise past quickly pl-3-1-wash.P

Shi’dizhchį́į́ yęędą́ą́’ ’éí tsinaabąąs dahólǫ́ nt’éé.

1-pass-born.P past TOP wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I pl-be.NI past
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Wagons were around during the time I was born.

Shich’ahashkéé léi’ doo bíká ’iishyeed da.

1-3-upset.I since NEG 3-for 1-help.I NEG
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I didn’t help him/her since s/he was upset with me.

Shicheii déidiiłjeeh’ii’, hoozdohgóó nahisiitą́.

1-grandfather 3-3-built.fire.P-and warm-to 3-sit.P

Shidá’í látsíní ’áyiilaa’ii’ yaa bił hoozhǫǫhgo bima yaa yinítą́.

1-uncle bracelet 3-make.P-and 3-3-happy.I 3-mother 3-3-give.P

Shileechąą’í halǫ́ǫ́ ńt’éé’ są biis.

1-dog have past old.age 3-die.of.P
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I used to have a dog but it died of old age.

Shimá dóó shizhé’é Yootóodi ’ółta’ ńt’éé’.

1-mother and 1-father Santa.Fe-at 3-go.to.school.NI past

Shimá tanaashgiizh ’áyiilaago ’áádóó deiilts’ee’.

1-mother pudding 3-make.P-GO and.then pl-3-1dpl-eat.MM.P
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My mom made pudding and then we ate it.

Shį́įgo ’ahbínígo ’ashdladi dóó ’ałníi’go k’adę́ę ha’a’aah łeh.

summer-GO morning-GO five-at and half-GO almost 3-sunrise.I usually
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At five thirty in the summer time the sun is about to come up.

T’áá ’ashání ’ashą́ą ndi sitsį’ yę́ę ’áádįįł.

just 1-eat.I-í 1-eat.I but 1-flesh past 3-dwindle.Prog
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I eat and eat but I keep right on losing weight.

Tó lą’ígo nidlą́ ’áko bee nitah yá’áh’hoot’ééh dooleeł.

water many 3-2-drink.DI so 3-with 2-among pl-3-good.NI future

Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.

cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P

Tł’éédą́ą́’ t’áadoo hazhó’í ’ííłhaazh da léi’ bił nisin.

night.last NEG good 1.sleep.P NEG since sleepy 3-1.desire.NI
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I’m sleepy since I didn’t sleep well last night.

Yéego ’ííníłta’, shi’awéé’, ’áko nizhónígo ni’dííłtah.

really 2-study.NI 1-baby so well 2-graduate.F
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Give education your best, my child, so that you can graduate.

Yéego nihee nahóółtą́ągo yá’át’ééh doo yę́ę ’áko shį́į́ naadą́ą́’ dadinóosééł.

hard.GO 1pl-on 3-rain.P.GO 3-good future wish then maybe corn 3pl-grow.F

Ániid iiyą́ą́ ’áko ndi t’ah dichin nisin.

Recently 1-eat.P even then still 3-hungry 1-want.NI