Introduction to Conjunctions

This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.

This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.

Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.

Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:

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(1)
Joe dóó Louise hataał.
Joe and Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe and Louise are singing.

The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:

(2)
Joe hataał.
Joe 3-sing.CI
Joe is singing.
(3)
*Joe Louise hataał.
Joe Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe Louise is singing.

Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.

In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:

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(4)
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
Joe and Louise and Kii pl-3-sing.CI
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing.

The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:

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(5)
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.

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(6)
Na’ná’á biyaa góne’ dóó báhátis ’adiłt’oh.
bridge 3-under below and 3-across 3-3-shoot.P
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it.

Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:

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(7)
Kin Łánídi naashnish háálá ’áadi shaghan.
Flagstaff 1-work.I because there 1-live.NI
I work in Flagstaff because I live there.

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(8)
Kin bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ hadah ’adzííłhaal ndi t’áadoo ’ádadénih da.
house 3-to-from down 1-tumble.P but NEG RFLX-1-hurt.P NEG
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt.

The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).

Navajo English Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? categories that can be conjoined
dóó ‘and’/‘and then’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP
’áádóó ‘and then’ yes clause
’áko ‘so, so that, so then’ yes clause
’áko ’índa ‘when, then’ yes clause
’áko ndi ‘even so, even then’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ‘then maybe/ then probably’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ’índa ‘then only’ yes clause
doodago ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
doodaii’ ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
-go no clause, NP
háálá ‘for, because’ yes clause
-ii’ ‘and, and thereupon’ yes clause
’índa ‘and only then’ no clause
léi’ ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ yes clause
ndi ‘but’ yes clause
’azhą́…ndi ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) clause
ńt’éé’ past maybe clause
yę́ędą́ą́’ past no clause
NP
noun phrase
PP
postpositional phrase
EP
postpositional enclitic phrase

With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.

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(9)
Shilééchąą’í bił na’nishkaadgo jooł bá ’abíńjíshhałgo yikéé’ náádiilwo’.
1-dog 3-with 1-herd.CI ball 3-for 3-1-bat.R-GO 3-after 3-run.R
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them.

The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:

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(10)
’Ádihodideesht’ih sha’shin nisingo t’áadoo ’atah haasdzíi’ da.
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble.

Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Some observations

Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).

When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)

Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.

Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.

An example search has returned 50 entries

’Adą́ą́dą́ą́’ ná’iyéláá’ nít’éé’ nídasésdo.

Yesterday SUP-1-pick.P past 1-sore.SP
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I picked pinyon yesterday and I got sore (physically) as a result.

’Ak’éégo ’éí chizh niléí keehaidi ninahdahiigééh nt’éé’.

autumn-GO that wood over.there winter.camp-at pl-3-1-unload.P past

’Ashdladi oolkiłgo ’áko shį́į́ ’índa ákǫ́ǫ́ diikah.

five.at time-GO only until then there 1dpl-go.pl.I
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At 5 o’clock only then we’ll leave for there.

’Atsiniltł’ish dóó tó dayókeedígíí baa ’áłah ’aleeh lá.

electricity and water pl-3-request.I-NOM 3-for meeting DISC

’Azhą́ hasistih ndi ’ayóo ’eesh’į́.

even.though 1-be.old.P even.though very 3-1-see.Prog

’Azhą́ shibéeso hólǫ́ǫ ndi t’áadoo ła’ baa nínil da.

even.though 1-money 3-exist.NI even.though NEG some 3-to 3-1-give.PlO1.P NEG

’azhą́ndi

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even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding

’Ałk’idą́ą́’ tł’oh naadą́ą́’ dant’į́įhgo łį́į́’ doodaii’ béégashii da há hada’ał’éés ńt’éé’.

long.ago grass corn 3-ripen.I-GO horse or cow etc. 4-for 3-stomp.I past

’Ałk’idą́ą́’ tł’oh naadą́ą́’ dant’į́įhgo łį́į́’ doodaii’ béégashii da há hadahwiił’éés ńt’éé’.

long.ago grass corn 3-ripen.I-GO horse or cow etc. 4-for 3-stomp.I past

’Áádóó haa hóót’įįd?

and.then how ho-happened.P

’Áádóó háajigo dah diníyá?

and.then which.way-GO start.off 2-go.I

’Áłtsé da’ííyą́ą́’ ’áko shį́į́ ’índa hooghandi nákai.

first 3.eat.P until then only home.at 3.pl.return.P
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First they ate, only until then they returned home.

’Áłtsé nééł’į́į́’ ’áko ’índa ’ííyą́ą́’.

first 1-look.P after.that 1.eat.P
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I looked at it first, after that I ate it.

Át’ah ’índa shaa náádíídááł.

later 1-to again-2-come.F

Bááh łikanígíí ła’ nisin háálá ayóo łikan.

bread 3-be.sweet.NI.NOM some 3-1-want.NI because very 3-be.sweet.NI
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I want some cake because it is really good.

Ch’aa dé ńt’éé shichídí bikee’ dilkǫǫh.

travel 1-go past 1-vehicle 3-tires worn.
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I was going to travel however my vehicle tires are worn.

Ch’iyáán ’ííshłaa ’áádóó da’iidą́ą́’.

food 3-1-make.P CONJ 1Pl-eat.P

Ch’iyáán t’óó ’ahayóí ndi tó ’ádin.

food lots but water 3-none.NI
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There’s lots of food but no water.

Chidí ’anáshdlééh, háálá doo naalnish da.

car 3-1-repair.I because NEG 3-work.I NEG

Chidí bitoo’ hadi’dííłbį́į́łgo ’índa Na’azhǫǫshgóó diikah.

car 3-fuel 3.fill.up-GO.P only.then casino-GOO 3pl.go.F
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Fill up the gas and we’ll go to the casino.

Da’ chidíísh bee hólǫ́ doodaii’ ni daats’í chidí nee hólǫ́?

Q car-Q 3-with 4-exist.NI or 2 maybe car 2-with 4-exist.NI

Damóo yę́ędą́ą́’ Yootóógóó niséyá.

Sunday past Santa.Fe-to 1-go.P

Damóogo ’áłah ’aleeh ’áko ’áadi nihaadíínááł.

Sunday 3-gather 3-be so there-at 1-Pl-to-2-arrive.F

Dibé bitsį’ doodago béégashii bitsį’ daats’í nínízin?

sheep 3-meat or cow 3-meat possibly 3-2-want.NI

Diné bikéyah bikáa’gi ndahonidzood yę́ędą́ą́’ Naatsis’áán hoolyégóó niha’áłchíní bił ’adahineet’į́į́’.

Navajo 3-land 3-on-at pl-areal-3-flee.pl.P past Navajo.Mountain areal-be.called.NI-to 1pl-children 3-with pl-1dpl-sneak.off.P

Diné nishłį́ndi Bilaagana bizaad t’éí bee yáshti’.

Navajo 1-be.NI but English language only 3-with 1-speak.I

Doo hazhó’ó ’adiist’a’ da léi’ t’óó shaa daadloh.

NEG good reflex-1.hear.NI NEG since just me.at pl.3.laugh.I
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They really laughed at me since I can hardly hear.

doodago

CONJ

dóó

CONJ

Hoozdohgóó daats’í deeshááł ’éí doodaii’ Be’eldííldahsínilgóó deeshááł.

Phoenix-toward maybe 1-walk.F or Albuquerque-toward 1-walk.F

K’ad ’ałníí’góó ’eeshtł’óół doo yę́ę ła’ damóo yę́ędą́ą́’ t’áadoo ’asétł’ǫ́ǫ da.

now half-toward 1-weave.Prog future past one Sunday when.past NEG 1-weave.P NEG

Kin bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ hadah ’adzííłhaal ndi t’áadoo ’ádadénih da.

house 3-to-from down 1-tumble.P but NEG RFLX-1-hurt.P NEG

Na’ná’á biyaa góne’ dóó báhátis ’adiłt’oh.

bridge 3-under below and 3-across 3-3-shoot.P

Naakidi ’oolkiłgo ’áko ’índa ’áajigo dah diiyá.

two.at time-GO after.that. towards.GO start 1.go.I
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After 2 o’clock I started to go that way.

Nanise’ígíí ch’iiyáán daohsą́ ’áko bee nihits’íís bitah ya’ádahoot’ééh dooleeł.

plant-ÍGÍÍ food pl-2-eat.I so 3-with 2pl-body 3-among pl-3-good.NI future

Naʼahóóhai baa nídiikai ʼakó ʼakʼidahiʼniłí bee shí ʼadíílwoł.

rodeo 3-about 1pl-do.pl.F so saddle.blanket 3-with 1-after 2-help.F

Neezdáago ’índa yiyííłtsą́.

3-sit.P-Comp only.then 3-3-see.P

Nídeezidgo ’índa hoł ní’deeswod.

month-GO only.then 4-with 2-drive.back.F

Níléígóó díní’į́į́’ shidíiniidgo ’áádóó ’áajigo déé’į́į́’.

over.there-toward 2-look.I 1-3-say.P-GO and.then that.way-toward 1-look.P
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I was told to look that way and then I looked that way.

Shi’dizhchį́į́ yęędą́ą́’ ’éí tsinaabąąs dahólǫ́ nt’éé.

1-pass-born.P past TOP wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I pl-be.NI past
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Wagons were around during the time I was born.

Shich’ahashkéé léi’ doo bíká ’iishyeed da.

1-3-upset.I since NEG 3-for 1-help.I NEG
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I didn’t help him/her since s/he was upset with me.

Shimá dóó shizhé’é Yootóodi ’ółta’ ńt’éé’.

1-mother and 1-father Santa.Fe-at 3-go.to.school.NI past

Shimá tanaashgiizh ’áyiilaago ’áádóó deiilts’ee’.

1-mother pudding 3-make.P-GO and.then pl-3-1dpl-eat.MM.P
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My mom made pudding and then we ate it.

Shimá bighangóó shíni’ ńt’éé’ ch’ééh déago shhoogéé’.

1-mother 3-home-to 1-desire.to.go past in.vain 1-go.P-GO 1-with ho-become.lazy.X

Shį́įgo ’ahbínígo ’ashdladi dóó ’ałníi’go k’adę́ę ha’a’aah łeh.

summer-GO morning-GO five-at and half-GO almost 3-sunrise.I usually
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At five thirty in the summer time the sun is about to come up.

Tsé nitsaa ’áko nidaaz.

stone 3-big CONJ 3-heavy
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The stone is big so it is heavy.

Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.

cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P

Yéego ’ííníłta’, shi’awéé’, ’áko nizhónígo ni’dííłtah.

really 2-study.NI 1-baby so well 2-graduate.F
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Give education your best, my child, so that you can graduate.

Yiską́ągo daats’í doodaii’ naakiiską́ągo daats’í dah dideeshááł.

tomorrow.GO maybe either two.tomorrow-GO or start.off 1-start.go.F

Ła’ nídeezid yę́ędą́ą́’ ’áajigo niséyá.

one month past that-way-GO 1.go.P