Introduction to Conjunctions
This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.
This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.
Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.
Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:
The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:
Joe | hataał. |
Joe | 3-sing.CI |
Joe is singing. |
*Joe | Louise | hataał. |
Joe | Louise | 3-sing.CI |
Joe Louise is singing. |
Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.
In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. |
Joe | and | Louise | and | Kii | pl-3-sing.CI |
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing. |
The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ | dóó | tsédáajį’ | ninish’na’. |
cave-from | and | cliff-to | 1-crawl.P |
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff. |
Na’ná’á | biyaa | góne’ | dóó | báhátis | ’adiłt’oh. | |
bridge | 3-under | below | and | 3-across | 3-3-shoot.P | |
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it. |
Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:
Kin | Łánídi | naashnish | háálá | ’áadi | shaghan. |
Flagstaff | 1-work.I | because | there | 1-live.NI | |
I work in Flagstaff because I live there. |
Kin | bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ | hadah | ’adzííłhaal | ndi | t’áadoo | ’ádadénih | da. |
house | 3-to-from | down | 1-tumble.P | but | NEG | RFLX-1-hurt.P | NEG |
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt. |
The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).
Navajo | English | Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? | categories that can be conjoined |
---|---|---|---|
dóó | ‘and’/‘and then’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP |
’áádóó | ‘and then’ | yes | clause |
’áko | ‘so, so that, so then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ’índa | ‘when, then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ndi | ‘even so, even then’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ | ‘then maybe/ then probably’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ ’índa | ‘then only’ | yes | clause |
doodago | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
doodaii’ | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
-go | no | clause, NP | |
háálá | ‘for, because’ | yes | clause |
-ii’ | ‘and, and thereupon’ | yes | clause |
’índa | ‘and only then’ | no | clause |
léi’ | ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ | yes | clause |
ndi | ‘but’ | yes | clause |
’azhą́…ndi | ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ | yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) | clause |
ńt’éé’ | past | maybe | clause |
yę́ędą́ą́’ | past | no | clause |
- NP
- noun phrase
- PP
- postpositional phrase
- EP
- postpositional enclitic phrase
With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.
Shilééchąą’í | bił | na’nishkaadgo | jooł | bá | ’abíńjíshhałgo | yikéé’ | náádiilwo’. |
1-dog | 3-with | 1-herd.CI | ball | 3-for | 3-1-bat.R-GO | 3-after | 3-run.R |
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them. |
The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:
’Ádihodideesht’ih | sha’shin | nisingo | t’áadoo | ’atah | haasdzíi’ | da. |
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. | |
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble. |
Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Some observations
Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).
When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)
Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.
Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.
An example search has returned 50 entries
’Ach’ą́ nisin ndi shidíbé nído’ahígíí ’ádin.
meat.hunger 1-want.NI but 1-sheep 4-butcher.F 3-1.none.NI’Ak’éégo ’éí chizh niléí keehaidi ninahdahiigééh nt’éé’.
autumn-GO that wood over.there winter.camp-at pl-3-1-unload.P past’Ashkii bi’éé’ hazhó’ó ’ayíyiischid dóó ’ólta’ góne’ yah ’ííyá.
boy 3-shirt nicely 3-3-tuck.in.P and 3-go.P’Atsiniltł’ish dóó tó dayókeedígíí baa ’áłah ’aleeh lá.
electricity and water pl-3-request.I-NOM 3-for meeting DISC’Azhą́ ts’aa’ nízhóní ndi ’áłts’íísí.
even.though basket 3-be.pretty.NI even.though 3-be.small.NIEven though the basket is pretty, it is small.
bookmark’Ałah ’aleehgóó deesháál nínízinísh doodago béésh nitsíkeesí daats’í bee nidoonááł ’éí doodago t’áá hooghanídi daats’í KTNN yídíiłts’iił?
meeting-to 1-go-F 3-2 want.NI-Q or computer possibly 2-watch.F or just home-at possibly KTNN 3-2-listen.FWill you go to the Chapter meeting in person or watch on the computer or will you stay home and listen to KTNN?
bookmark- -góó to, toward, along, on, with a numeral it indicates a datefind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Future (F)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- déyá start to gofind in Navajo Verb Modes
- Neuter Imperfective (NI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- nisin think, wantfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- doodago or
- -ísh enclitic for yes/no questionsfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- daats’í maybe, perhaps, possiblyfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -ee by means offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- -di atfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Future (F)find in Navajo Verb Modes
’Ałk’idą́ą́’ dahane’ yę́ę k’ad ’índa baa nídahane’.
past pl-3.tell.story.I old now until.now 3-for pl-3.tell.story.I’Áádóó ch’íníyá nít’ę́ę́’ shik’ijiijéé’.
and.then out-1-go.P past 1-on-4-attack.pl.P’Áłtsé nééł’į́į́’ ’áko ’índa ’ííyą́ą́’.
first 1-look.P after.that 1.eat.PBááh łikanígíí ła’ nisin háálá ayóo łikan.
bread 3-be.sweet.NI.NOM some 3-1-want.NI because very 3-be.sweet.NIBichidí yichǫ’ yę́ędą́ą́’ ’ashkii t’áani’ nálwod.
3-vehicle 3-P-ruin past boy on.foot 3-P-returnCh’aa déyá ńt’éé shichídí bikee’ dilkǫǫh.
travel 1-go past 1-vehicle 3-tires worn.Chidí ’anáshdlééh, háálá doo naalnish da.
car 3-1-repair.I because NEG 3-work.I NEGDiné bikéyah bikáa’gi ndahonidzood yę́ędą́ą́’ Naatsis’áán hoolyéégóó niha’áłchíní bił ’adahineet’į́į́’.
Navajo 3-land 3-on-at pl-areal-3-flee.pl.P past Navajo.Mountain areal-be.called.NI-to 1pl-children 3-with pl-1dpl-sneak.off.PAt the time people were on the run in Navajoland, fleeing in small groups, we sneaked away with our children one group after another, to Navajo Mountain.
bookmark- -káá’ on, on top offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- location
- -gi atfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- location
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- yę́ędą́ą́’ past
- Neuter Imperfective (NI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- -ił withfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- accompaniment
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
Diné nishłį́į ndi Bilaagana bizaad t’éí bee yáshti’.
Navajo 1-be.NI but English language only 3-with 1-speak.IDíí kwe’é biká’ígíí ’índa bik’i’diitą́.
this here 3-on.NOM until.then 3-1.understand.PDíí tsídii bit’oh yisdádeeshjoł, ’áko shį́į́ kónááhoot’éhé tsídii ła’ náábít’oh dooleeł.
this bird 3-nest 3-1-save.F-NCM then maybe next.year bird some again-3-nest futureDoo hah shił ’ílwod da léi’ t’áá ’íídą́ą́’ da’oodą́ą́’ lá.
NEG quick me.with 3.drive.P NEG since already 3pl.eat.P discoverDoo hazhó’ó ’adiist’a’ da léi’ t’óó shaa daadloh.
NEG good reflex-1.hear.NI NEG since just me.at pl.3.laugh.IHoozdohgóó daats’í deeshááł ’éí doodaii’ Be’eldííldahsínilgóó deeshááł.
Phoenix-toward maybe 1-walk.F or Albuquerque-toward 1-walk.FJooł ’ahííłhan ’áádóó ’atiin dóó ’anít’i’ báhátis ’eelts’id.
ball 3-1-throw.P and.then road and fence 3-over 3-move.SRO.PK’ad ’ałníí’góó ’eeshtł’óół doo yę́ę ła’ damóo yę́ędą́ą́’ t’áadoo ’asétł’ǫ́ǫ da.
now half-toward 1-weave.Prog future past one Sunday when.past NEG 1-weave.P NEGI could have been halfway through weaving, but last week I didn’t weave at all.
bookmark- Progressive (Prog)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’ashtł’ó weavefind in Navajo Verb Modes
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’ashtł’ó weavefind in Navajo Verb Modes
- k’ad nowfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -góó to, toward, along, on, with a numeral it indicates a datefind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- goal
- -dą́ą́’ past timefind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- time
- yę́ędą́ą́’ past
K’idadeelyáá nit’éé’ t’óó daazgan, háálá doo nahałtin da.
1pl-plant.P past just 3pl-dry.SPN, because NEG 3-rain.CI NEGWe planted but they just shriveled up, because of the lack of rain.
bookmark- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- k’idishłé plant itfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- ńt’éé’ relates to past timefind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Si-Perfective Neuter (SPN)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- háálá for, because
- doo --- da frame to negativize verbs and phrasesfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Continuative Imperfective (CI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
Kin bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ hadah ’adzííłhaal ndi t’áadoo ’ádadénih da.
house 3-to-from down 1-tumble.P but NEG RFLX-1-hurt.P NEGI tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt.
bookmark- -ghą́ą́h attaching to, hitched to, connected tofind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- -dę́ę́’ from a general location or point in space or time, also out of, off offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ndi but
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- t’áadoo notfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
Kin Łánídi naashnish háálá ’áadi shaghan.
Flagstaff 1-work.I because there 1-live.NIMósí dóó łeechą́ą́’ii’ baniłts’ood’ii’, bił hózhǫ́.
cat dog 3-1-feed.P-and 3-with 3-happy.NINaakidi ’oolkiłgo ’áko ’índa ’áajigo dah diiyá.
two.at time-GO after.that. towards.GO start 1.go.INanise’ígíí ch’iiyáán daohsą́ ’áko bee nihits’íís bitah ya’ádahoot’ééh dooleeł.
plant-ÍGÍÍ food pl-2-eat.I so 3-with 2pl-body 3-among pl-3-good.NI futureNaʼahóóhai baa nídiikai ʼakó ʼakʼidahiʼniłí bee shíká ʼadíílwoł.
rodeo 3-about 1pl-do.pl.F so saddle.blanket 3-with 1-after 2-help.FNizhónígo ha’íí’ą́ yę́ędą́ą́’ sxíiłgo da’ségis.
beautiful sunrise past quickly pl-3-1-wash.PI quickly did my laundry during the beautiful sunrise.
bookmarkShi’dizhchį́į́ yęędą́ą́’ ’éí tsinaabąąs dahólǫ́ nt’éé.
1-pass-born.P past TOP wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I pl-be.NI pastShich’ahashkéé léi’ doo bíká ’iishyeed da.
1-3-upset.I since NEG 3-for 1-help.I NEGShicheii déidiiłjeeh’ii’, hoozdohgóó nahisiitą́.
1-grandfather 3-3-built.fire.P-and warm-to 3-sit.PShidá’í látsíní ’áyiilaa’ii’ yaa bił hoozhǫǫhgo bima yaa yinítą́.
1-uncle bracelet 3-make.P-and 3-3-happy.I 3-mother 3-3-give.PMy uncle made a bracelet and cheerfully gave it to his mother.
bookmark- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’ashłééh makefind in Navajo Verb Modes
- -ii’ and, and thereupon
- -aa tofind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- benefactive
- -ił withfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- cognitive experiencer
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
Shileechąą’í halǫ́ǫ́ ńt’éé’ są biisxé.
1-dog have past old.age 3-die.of.PShimá dóó shizhé’é Yootóodi ’ółta’ ńt’éé’.
1-mother and 1-father Santa.Fe-at 3-go.to.school.NI pastShimá tanaashgiizh ’áyiilaago ’áádóó deiilts’ee’.
1-mother pudding 3-make.P-GO and.then pl-3-1dpl-eat.MM.PShį́įgo ’ahbínígo ’ashdladi dóó ’ałníi’go k’adę́ę ha’a’aah łeh.
summer-GO morning-GO five-at and half-GO almost 3-sunrise.I usuallyT’áá ’ashání ’ashą́ą ndi sitsį’ yę́ę ’áádįįł.
just 1-eat.I-í 1-eat.I but 1-flesh past 3-dwindle.ProgTó lą’ígo nidlą́ ’áko bee nitah yá’áh’hoot’ééh dooleeł.
water many 3-2-drink.DI so 3-with 2-among pl-3-good.NI futureTsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.PI crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.
bookmark- -dę́ę́’ from a general location or point in space or time, also out of, off offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- dóó and, and then
- -jį́’ up to, as far asfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ninish’nééh crawl to a pointfind in Navajo Verb Modes
Tł’éédą́ą́’ t’áadoo hazhó’í ’ííłhaazh da léi’ bił nisin.
night.last NEG good 1.sleep.P NEG since sleepy 3-1.desire.NIYéego ’ííníłta’, shi’awéé’, ’áko nizhónígo ni’dííłtah.
really 2-study.NI 1-baby so well 2-graduate.FYéego nihee nahóółtą́ągo yá’át’ééh doo yę́ę ’áko shį́į́ naadą́ą́’ dadinóosééł.
hard.GO 1pl-on 3-rain.P.GO 3-good future wish then maybe corn 3pl-grow.FÁniid iiyą́ą́ ’áko ndi t’ah dichin nisin.
Recently 1-eat.P even then still 3-hungry 1-want.NII recently ate even then I am still hungry.
bookmark- ’ániidígo recently, not long agofind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’áko ndi even so, even then
- -t’ah in a recess, pocket or enclosed space, undercoverfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Neuter Imperfective (NI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- nisin think, wantfind in Navajo Verb Modes