Introduction to Conjunctions
This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.
This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.
Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.
Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:
The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:
Joe | hataał. |
Joe | 3-sing.CI |
Joe is singing. |
*Joe | Louise | hataał. |
Joe | Louise | 3-sing.CI |
Joe Louise is singing. |
Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.
In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. |
Joe | and | Louise | and | Kii | pl-3-sing.CI |
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing. |
The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ | dóó | tsédáajį’ | ninish’na’. |
cave-from | and | cliff-to | 1-crawl.P |
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff. |
Na’ná’á | biyaa | góne’ | dóó | báhátis | ’adiłt’oh. | |
bridge | 3-under | below | and | 3-across | 3-3-shoot.P | |
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it. |
Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:
Kin | Łánídi | naashnish | háálá | ’áadi | shaghan. |
Flagstaff | 1-work.I | because | there | 1-live.NI | |
I work in Flagstaff because I live there. |
Kin | bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ | hadah | ’adzííłhaal | ndi | t’áadoo | ’ádadénih | da. |
house | 3-to-from | down | 1-tumble.P | but | NEG | RFLX-1-hurt.P | NEG |
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt. |
The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).
Navajo | English | Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? | categories that can be conjoined |
---|---|---|---|
dóó | ‘and’/‘and then’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP |
’áádóó | ‘and then’ | yes | clause |
’áko | ‘so, so that, so then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ’índa | ‘when, then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ndi | ‘even so, even then’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ | ‘then maybe/ then probably’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ ’índa | ‘then only’ | yes | clause |
doodago | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
doodaii’ | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
-go | no | clause, NP | |
háálá | ‘for, because’ | yes | clause |
-ii’ | ‘and, and thereupon’ | yes | clause |
’índa | ‘and only then’ | no | clause |
léi’ | ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ | yes | clause |
ndi | ‘but’ | yes | clause |
’azhą́…ndi | ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ | yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) | clause |
ńt’éé’ | past | maybe | clause |
yę́ędą́ą́’ | past | no | clause |
- NP
- noun phrase
- PP
- postpositional phrase
- EP
- postpositional enclitic phrase
With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.
Shilééchąą’í | bił | na’nishkaadgo | jooł | bá | ’abíńjíshhałgo | yikéé’ | náádiilwo’. |
1-dog | 3-with | 1-herd.CI | ball | 3-for | 3-1-bat.R-GO | 3-after | 3-run.R |
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them. |
The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:
’Ádihodideesht’ih | sha’shin | nisingo | t’áadoo | ’atah | haasdzíi’ | da. |
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. | |
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble. |
Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Some observations
Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).
When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)
Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.
Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.
An example search has returned 50 entries
’Adą́ą́dą́ą́’ ná’iyéláá’ nít’éé’ nídasésdo.
Yesterday SUP-1-pick.P past 1-sore.SP’Ak’éégo ’éí chizh niléí keehaidi ninahdahiigééh nt’éé’.
autumn-GO that wood over.there winter.camp-at pl-3-1-unload.P past’Atsiniltł’ish dóó tó dayókeedígíí baa ’áłah ’aleeh lá.
electricity and water pl-3-request.I-NOM 3-for meeting DISC’Azhą́ deesk’aaz ndi t’áá ’ákwíí jį́ na’nishkaad.
even. though 3-cold.SPN but just every day 1-herd CI’Azhą́ shibéeso hólǫ́ǫ ndi t’áadoo ła’ baa nínil da.
even.though 1-money 3-exist.NI even.though NEG some 3-to 3-1-give.PlO1.P NEG’Áádóó ch’íníyá nít’ę́ę́’ shik’ijiijéé’.
and.then out-1-go.P past 1-on-4-attack.pl.P’Áádóó háajigo dah diníyá?
and.then which.way-GO start.off 2-go.I’Áádóó níléíjigo daaníigo t’óó ’áajigo shił dah ’adiilwod.
and.then over.there-toward pl-3-say.I-GO just that.way-toward 1-with start.off 3-drive.P’Áłtsé biba’ dooleeł ’áko shį́į́ ’índa nihił dah adidoolwoł.
first 3.for will until then only 1.with start 3-drive.F’Áłtsé nééł’į́į́’ ’áko ’índa ’ííyą́ą́’.
first 1-look.P after.that 1.eat.P’índa
’Áłah ’aleehgo ch’iyáán ’ádadiilnííł ’áko shį́į́ ’índa diné ndahidookah.
meeting-Comp food 3-1-Pl-make.F CONJ people 3-Pl.will-arrive.FÁt’ah ’índa shaa náádíídááł.
later 1-to again-2-come.FBááh łikanígíí ła’ nisin háálá ayóo łikan.
bread 3-be.sweet.NI.NOM some 3-1-want.NI because very 3-be.sweet.NIBibee’eldǫǫh haiyííłhan’ii’ ’bįįh yił ’adeesdǫǫh.
gun 3-jerk.out.P-and deer 3-shot.PChidí nahideeshnih ndi shibéeso ’ádin.
car 3-1-buy.F but 1-money 3-none.NIChizh ła’ ’ahidíłkaał ’áko ’índa nich’į’ n’deeshłééł.
firewood some 2-chop CONJ 2-to 1-pay.FDaango k’ééda’dilyééh nt’éé’ t’áádoo k’ééda’diilyáa da.
spring-GO 3-plant.R past NEG 3-3-plant.P NEGWe used to plant in the springtime, but this time we didn’t.
bookmark- -go verb and subordinating encliticfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Iterative (R)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- k’idishłé plant itfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- ńt’éé’ past
- ńt’éé’ relates to past timefind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- t’áadoo notfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- k’idishłé plant itfind in Navajo Verb Modes
Damóo yę́ędą́ą́’ Yootóógóó niséyá.
Sunday past Santa.Fe-to 1-go.PDibé bitsį’ doodago béégashii bitsį’ daats’í nínízin?
sheep 3-meat or cow 3-meat possibly 3-2-want.NIDiné bikéyah bikáa’gi ndahonidzood yę́ędą́ą́’ Naatsis’áán hoolyéégóó niha’áłchíní bił ’adahineet’į́į́’.
Navajo 3-land 3-on-at pl-areal-3-flee.pl.P past Navajo.Mountain areal-be.called.NI-to 1pl-children 3-with pl-1dpl-sneak.off.PAt the time people were on the run in Navajoland, fleeing in small groups, we sneaked away with our children one group after another, to Navajo Mountain.
bookmark- -káá’ on, on top offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- location
- -gi atfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- location
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- yę́ędą́ą́’ past
- Neuter Imperfective (NI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- -ił withfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- accompaniment
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
Díí tsídii bit’oh yisdádeeshjoł, ’áko shį́į́ kónááhoot’éhé tsídii ła’ náábít’oh dooleeł.
this bird 3-nest 3-1-save.F-NCM then maybe next.year bird some again-3-nest futureDlǫ́ǫ́’ ’a’ą́ą́dę́ę́’ hanoolne’ dóó naneesne’.
prairie.dog hole-from stick.head.up.out.P and 3-look.around.PDíí séí dóó tsé yázhí ’ałtahígíí łeezh bikáa’gi naasaas ’áko shį́į́ doo hashtł’ish da doołeeł.
this sand and stone little mixed.together-NOM dirt 3-on-at 3-1-sprinkle.Prog then maybe NEG mud NEG futureHooghan bikáá’ dah si’ánígíí bíyah da’nii’áago ’ádíílį́į́ł ’áko hooghan doo ’ałhiih nídoołdas da.
hogan 3-on up 3-sit.SPN-ÍGÍÍ 3-under pl-3-extend.NP-GO 3-2-make.F so hogan NEG RECIP-3-collapse.F NEGUse strong pillars to build the hogan so that the roof will not cave in.
bookmark- -káá’ on, on top offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- dah up at an elevation, off, static, holdingfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Si-Perfective Neuter (SPN)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- -yah under, beneathfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Neuter Perfective (NP)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- -go verb and subordinating encliticfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Future (F)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’áko so, so that, so then
- doo --- da frame to negativize verbs and phrasesfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
Neezdáago ’índa yiyííłtsą́.
3-sit.P-Comp only.then 3-3-see.PNidlóóhísh doodaii’ dooísh nidlóoh da?
2-cold.I-Q or NEG-Q 2-cold.I-Q NEGNídeezidgo ’índa hoł ní’deeswod.
month-GO only.then 4-with 2-drive.back.FShi’dizhchį́į́ yęędą́ą́’ ’éí tsinaabąąs dahólǫ́ nt’éé.
1-pass-born.P past TOP wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I pl-be.NI pastShimá dóó shizhé’é Yootóodi ’ółta’ ńt’éé’.
1-mother and 1-father Santa.Fe-at 3-go.to.school.NI pastShimá tanaashgiizh ’áyiilaago ’áádóó deiilts’ee’.
1-mother pudding 3-make.P-GO and.then pl-3-1dpl-eat.MM.PShitsili tsin ła’ nieidiitą́ii’ łeechą́ą́’ii’ łéi néídiiłhaal.
1-little.brother stick 3-3-pick.up.P-and dog INDEF 3-3-hit.PTsé nitsaa ’áko nidaaz.
stone 3-big CONJ 3-heavyTsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.PI crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.
bookmark- -dę́ę́’ from a general location or point in space or time, also out of, off offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- dóó and, and then
- -jį́’ up to, as far asfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ninish’nééh crawl to a pointfind in Navajo Verb Modes