Introduction to Conjunctions

This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.

This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.

Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.

Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:

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(1)
Joe dóó Louise hataał.
Joe and Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe and Louise are singing.

The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:

(2)
Joe hataał.
Joe 3-sing.CI
Joe is singing.
(3)
*Joe Louise hataał.
Joe Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe Louise is singing.

Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.

In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:

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(4)
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
Joe and Louise and Kii pl-3-sing.CI
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing.

The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:

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(5)
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.

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(6)
Na’ná’á biyaa góne’ dóó báhátis ’adiłt’oh.
bridge 3-under below and 3-across 3-3-shoot.P
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it.

Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:

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(7)
Kin Łánídi naashnish háálá ’áadi shaghan.
Flagstaff 1-work.I because there 1-live.NI
I work in Flagstaff because I live there.

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(8)
Kin bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ hadah ’adzííłhaal ndi t’áadoo ’ádadénih da.
house 3-to-from down 1-tumble.P but NEG RFLX-1-hurt.P NEG
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt.

The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).

Navajo English Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? categories that can be conjoined
dóó ‘and’/‘and then’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP
’áádóó ‘and then’ yes clause
’áko ‘so, so that, so then’ yes clause
’áko ’índa ‘when, then’ yes clause
’áko ndi ‘even so, even then’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ‘then maybe/ then probably’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ’índa ‘then only’ yes clause
doodago ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
doodaii’ ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
-go no clause, NP
háálá ‘for, because’ yes clause
-ii’ ‘and, and thereupon’ yes clause
’índa ‘and only then’ no clause
léi’ ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ yes clause
ndi ‘but’ yes clause
’azhą́…ndi ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) clause
ńt’éé’ past maybe clause
yę́ędą́ą́’ past no clause
NP
noun phrase
PP
postpositional phrase
EP
postpositional enclitic phrase

With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.

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(9)
Shilééchąą’í bił na’nishkaadgo jooł bá ’abíńjíshhałgo yikéé’ náádiilwo’.
1-dog 3-with 1-herd.CI ball 3-for 3-1-bat.R-GO 3-after 3-run.R
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them.

The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:

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(10)
’Ádihodideesht’ih sha’shin nisingo t’áadoo ’atah haasdzíi’ da.
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble.

Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Some observations

Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).

When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)

Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.

Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.

An example search has returned 50 entries

’Adą́ą́dą́ą́’ ná’iyéláá’ nít’éé’ nídasésdo.

Yesterday SUP-1-pick.P past 1-sore.SP
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I picked pinyon yesterday and I got sore (physically) as a result.

’Ak’éégo ’éí chizh niléí keehaidi ninahdahiigééh nt’éé’.

autumn-GO that wood over.there winter.camp-at pl-3-1-unload.P past

’Atsiniltł’ish dóó tó dayókeedígíí baa ’áłah ’aleeh lá.

electricity and water pl-3-request.I-NOM 3-for meeting DISC

’Azhą́ deesk’aaz ndi t’áá ’ákwíí jį́ na’nishkaad.

even. though 3-cold.SPN but just every day 1-herd CI

’Azhą́ shibéeso hólǫ́ǫ ndi t’áadoo ła’ baa nínil da.

even.though 1-money 3-exist.NI even.though NEG some 3-to 3-1-give.PlO1.P NEG

’azhą́ndi

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even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding

’áádóó

CONJ

’Áádóó ch’íníyá nít’ę́ę́’ shik’ijiijéé’.

and.then out-1-go.P past 1-on-4-attack.pl.P
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And then I went out, and they attacked me.

’Áádóó haa hóót’įįd?

and.then how ho-happened.P

’Áádóó hainidzaa?

and.then what-3-2-do.P

’Áádóó háajigo dah diníyá?

and.then which.way-GO start.off 2-go.I

’Áádóó níléíjigo daaníigo t’óó ’áajigo sh dah ’adiilwod.

and.then over.there-toward pl-3-say.I-GO just that.way-toward 1-with start.off 3-drive.P
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And then they said to go that way, so I just drove that way.

’áko

CONJ
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so, so that, so then

’áko shį́į́ ’índa

CONJ

’Áłtsé biba’ dooleeł ’áko shį́į́ ’índa nihił dah adidoolwoł.

first 3.for will until then only 1.with start 3-drive.F

’Áłtsé nééł’į́į́’ ’áko ’índa ’ííyą́ą́’.

first 1-look.P after.that 1.eat.P
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I looked at it first, after that I ate it.

’índa

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and only then

’Áłah ’aleehgo ch’iyáán ’ádadiilnííł ’áko shį́į́ ’índa diné ndahidookah.

meeting-Comp food 3-1-Pl-make.F CONJ people 3-Pl.will-arrive.F

-ii’

CONJ
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and, and thereupon

Át’ah ’índa shaa náádíídááł.

later 1-to again-2-come.F

Bááh łikanígíí ła’ nisin háálá ayóo łikan.

bread 3-be.sweet.NI.NOM some 3-1-want.NI because very 3-be.sweet.NI
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I want some cake because it is really good.

Bibee’eldǫǫh haiyííłhan’ii’ ’bįįh yił ’adeesdǫǫh.

gun 3-jerk.out.P-and deer 3-shot.P

Chidí nahideeshnih ndi shibéeso ’ádin.

car 3-1-buy.F but 1-money 3-none.NI

Chizh ła’ ’ahidíłkaał ’áko ’índa nich’į’ n’deeshłééł.

firewood some 2-chop CONJ 2-to 1-pay.F
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I’ll pay you when you chop some wood (and not before).

Daango k’ééda’dilyééh nt’éé’ t’áádoo k’ééda’diilyáa da.

spring-GO 3-plant.R past NEG 3-3-plant.P NEG

Damóo yę́ędą́ą́’ Yootóógóó niséyá.

Sunday past Santa.Fe-to 1-go.P

Dibé bitsį’ doodago béégashii bitsį’ daats’í nínízin?

sheep 3-meat or cow 3-meat possibly 3-2-want.NI

Diné bikéyah bikáa’gi ndahonidzood yę́ędą́ą́’ Naatsis’áán hoolyégóó niha’áłchíní bił ’adahineet’į́į́’.

Navajo 3-land 3-on-at pl-areal-3-flee.pl.P past Navajo.Mountain areal-be.called.NI-to 1pl-children 3-with pl-1dpl-sneak.off.P

Díí tsídii bit’oh yisdádeeshjoł, ’áko shį́į́ kónááhoot’éhé tsídii ła’ náábít’oh dooleeł.

this bird 3-nest 3-1-save.F-NCM then maybe next.year bird some again-3-nest future
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I’ll save this bird nest (from destruction) and it will probably serve another bird next year.

Dlǫ́ǫ́’ ’a’ą́ą́dę́ę́’ hanoolne’ dóó naneesne’.

prairie.dog hole-from stick.head.up.out.P and 3-look.around.P

doodaii’

or
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or

Díí séí dóó tsé yázhí ’ałtahígíí łeezh bikáa’gi naasaas ’áko shį́į́ doo hashtł’ish da doołeeł.

this sand and stone little mixed.together-NOM dirt 3-on-at 3-1-sprinkle.Prog then maybe NEG mud NEG future

Hooghan bikáá’ dah si’ánígíí bíyah da’nii’áago ’ádíílį́į́ł ’áko hooghan doo ’ałhiih nídoołdas da.

hogan 3-on up 3-sit.SPN-ÍGÍÍ 3-under pl-3-extend.NP-GO 3-2-make.F so hogan NEG RECIP-3-collapse.F NEG

léi’

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because, inasmuch as, or in view of the fact that

ndi

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but

Neezdáago ’índa yiyííłtsą́.

3-sit.P-Comp only.then 3-3-see.P

Nidlóóhísh doodaii’ dooísh nidlóoh da?

2-cold.I-Q or NEG-Q 2-cold.I-Q NEG

Nídeezidgo ’índa hoł ní’deeswod.

month-GO only.then 4-with 2-drive.back.F

Shi’dizhchį́į́ yęędą́ą́’ ’éí tsinaabąąs dahólǫ́ nt’éé.

1-pass-born.P past TOP wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I pl-be.NI past

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Wagons were around during the time I was born.

Shimá dóó shizhé’é Yootóodi ’ółta’ ńt’éé’.

1-mother and 1-father Santa.Fe-at 3-go.to.school.NI past

Shimá tanaashgiizh ’áyiilaago ’áádóó deiilts’ee’.

1-mother pudding 3-make.P-GO and.then pl-3-1dpl-eat.MM.P
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My mom made pudding and then we ate it.

Shitsili tsin ła’ nieidiitą́ii’ łeechą́ą́’ii’ łéi néídiiłhaal.

1-little.brother stick 3-3-pick.up.P-and dog INDEF 3-3-hit.P

Tsé nitsaa ’áko nidaaz.

stone 3-big CONJ 3-heavy
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The stone is big so it is heavy.

Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.

cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P

Tł’éédą́ą́’ t’áadoo hazhó’í ’ííłhaazh da léi’ bił nisin.

night.last NEG good 1.sleep.P NEG since sleepy 3-1.desire.NI
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I’m sleepy since I didn’t sleep well last night.

Yéego ’ííníłta’, she’awéé’, ’áko nizhónígo ni’dííłtah.

really 2-study.NI 1-baby so well 2-graduate.F
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Give education your best, my child, so that you can graduate.

Yiską́ągo daats’í doodaii’ naakiiską́ągo daats’í dah dideeshááł.

tomorrow.GO maybe either two.tomorrow-GO or start.off 1-start.go.F

Łį́į́’ bá ni’níłjoolgo ’índa kintahgóó diikah.

horse 3-for 2.feed.NCM.P only.then town-GO 3pl.go.F
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I will feed the horse only then we will go to town.