Introduction to Conjunctions
This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.
This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.
Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.
Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:
The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:
Joe | hataał. |
Joe | 3-sing.CI |
Joe is singing. |
*Joe | Louise | hataał. |
Joe | Louise | 3-sing.CI |
Joe Louise is singing. |
Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.
In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. |
Joe | and | Louise | and | Kii | pl-3-sing.CI |
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing. |
The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ | dóó | tsédáajį’ | ninish’na’. |
cave-from | and | cliff-to | 1-crawl.P |
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff. |
Na’ná’á | biyaa | góne’ | dóó | báhátis | ’adiłt’oh. | |
bridge | 3-under | below | and | 3-across | 3-3-shoot.P | |
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it. |
Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:
Kin | Łánídi | naashnish | háálá | ’áadi | shaghan. |
Flagstaff | 1-work.I | because | there | 1-live.NI | |
I work in Flagstaff because I live there. |
Kin | bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ | hadah | ’adzííłhaal | ndi | t’áadoo | ’ádadénih | da. |
house | 3-to-from | down | 1-tumble.P | but | NEG | RFLX-1-hurt.P | NEG |
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt. |
The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).
Navajo | English | Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? | categories that can be conjoined |
---|---|---|---|
dóó | ‘and’/‘and then’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP |
’áádóó | ‘and then’ | yes | clause |
’áko | ‘so, so that, so then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ’índa | ‘when, then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ndi | ‘even so, even then’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ | ‘then maybe/ then probably’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ ’índa | ‘then only’ | yes | clause |
doodago | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
doodaii’ | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
-go | no | clause, NP | |
háálá | ‘for, because’ | yes | clause |
-ii’ | ‘and, and thereupon’ | yes | clause |
’índa | ‘and only then’ | no | clause |
léi’ | ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ | yes | clause |
ndi | ‘but’ | yes | clause |
’azhą́…ndi | ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ | yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) | clause |
ńt’éé’ | past | maybe | clause |
yę́ędą́ą́’ | past | no | clause |
- NP
- noun phrase
- PP
- postpositional phrase
- EP
- postpositional enclitic phrase
With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.
Shilééchąą’í | bił | na’nishkaadgo | jooł | bá | ’abíńjíshhałgo | yikéé’ | náádiilwo’. |
1-dog | 3-with | 1-herd.CI | ball | 3-for | 3-1-bat.R-GO | 3-after | 3-run.R |
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them. |
The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:
’Ádihodideesht’ih | sha’shin | nisingo | t’áadoo | ’atah | haasdzíi’ | da. |
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. | |
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble. |
Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Some observations
Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).
When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)
Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.
Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.
An example search has returned 50 entries
’Adą́ą́dą́ą́’ ná’iyéláá’ nít’éé’ nídasésdo.
Yesterday SUP-1-pick.P past 1-sore.SP’Ak’éégo ’éí chizh niléí keehaidi ninahdahiigééh nt’éé’.
autumn-GO that wood over.there winter.camp-at pl-3-1-unload.P past’Ashdladi oolkiłgo ’áko shį́į́ ’índa ákǫ́ǫ́ diikah.
five.at time-GO only until then there 1dpl-go.pl.I’Atsiniltł’ish dóó tó dayókeedígíí baa ’áłah ’aleeh lá.
electricity and water pl-3-request.I-NOM 3-for meeting DISC’Azhą́ hasistih ndi ’ayóo ’eesh’į́.
even.though 1-be.old.P even.though very 3-1-see.Prog’Azhą́ shibéeso hólǫ́ǫ ndi t’áadoo ła’ baa nínil da.
even.though 1-money 3-exist.NI even.though NEG some 3-to 3-1-give.PlO1.P NEG’Ałk’idą́ą́’ tł’oh naadą́ą́’ dant’į́įhgo łį́į́’ doodaii’ béégashii da há hada’ał’éés ńt’éé’.
long.ago grass corn 3-ripen.I-GO horse or cow etc. 4-for 3-stomp.I past’Ałk’idą́ą́’ tł’oh naadą́ą́’ dant’į́įhgo łį́į́’ doodaii’ béégashii da há hadahwiił’éés ńt’éé’.
long.ago grass corn 3-ripen.I-GO horse or cow etc. 4-for 3-stomp.I past’Áádóó háajigo dah diníyá?
and.then which.way-GO start.off 2-go.I’Áłtsé da’ííyą́ą́’ ’áko shį́į́ ’índa hooghandi nákai.
first 3.eat.P until then only home.at 3.pl.return.P’Áłtsé nééł’į́į́’ ’áko ’índa ’ííyą́ą́’.
first 1-look.P after.that 1.eat.PÁt’ah ’índa shaa náádíídááł.
later 1-to again-2-come.FBááh łikanígíí ła’ nisin háálá ayóo łikan.
bread 3-be.sweet.NI.NOM some 3-1-want.NI because very 3-be.sweet.NICh’aa déyá ńt’éé shichídí bikee’ dilkǫǫh.
travel 1-go past 1-vehicle 3-tires worn.Ch’iyáán ’ííshłaa ’áádóó da’iidą́ą́’.
food 3-1-make.P CONJ 1Pl-eat.PCh’iyáán t’óó ’ahayóí ndi tó ’ádin.
food lots but water 3-none.NIChidí ’anáshdlééh, háálá doo naalnish da.
car 3-1-repair.I because NEG 3-work.I NEGChidí bitoo’ hadi’dííłbį́į́łgo ’índa Na’azhǫǫshgóó diikah.
car 3-fuel 3.fill.up-GO.P only.then casino-GOO 3pl.go.FDa’ chidíísh bee hólǫ́ doodaii’ ni daats’í chidí nee hólǫ́?
Q car-Q 3-with 4-exist.NI or 2 maybe car 2-with 4-exist.NIDoes s/he have a car or do you have a car?
bookmark- da’ particle for yes/no questionsfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- -ísh enclitic for yes/no questionsfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- -ee by means offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- accompaniment
- doodaii’ particle orfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- doodaii’ or
- daats’í particle for perhapsfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- Neuter Imperfective (NI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
Damóo yę́ędą́ą́’ Yootóógóó niséyá.
Sunday past Santa.Fe-to 1-go.PDamóogo ’áłah ’aleeh ’áko ’áadi nihaadíínááł.
Sunday 3-gather 3-be so there-at 1-Pl-to-2-arrive.FDibé bitsį’ doodago béégashii bitsį’ daats’í nínízin?
sheep 3-meat or cow 3-meat possibly 3-2-want.NIDiné bikéyah bikáa’gi ndahonidzood yę́ędą́ą́’ Naatsis’áán hoolyéégóó niha’áłchíní bił ’adahineet’į́į́’.
Navajo 3-land 3-on-at pl-areal-3-flee.pl.P past Navajo.Mountain areal-be.called.NI-to 1pl-children 3-with pl-1dpl-sneak.off.PAt the time people were on the run in Navajoland, fleeing in small groups, we sneaked away with our children one group after another, to Navajo Mountain.
bookmark- -káá’ on, on top offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- location
- -gi atfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- location
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- yę́ędą́ą́’ past
- Neuter Imperfective (NI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- -ił withfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- accompaniment
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
Diné nishłį́į ndi Bilaagana bizaad t’éí bee yáshti’.
Navajo 1-be.NI but English language only 3-with 1-speak.IDoo hazhó’ó ’adiist’a’ da léi’ t’óó shaa daadloh.
NEG good reflex-1.hear.NI NEG since just me.at pl.3.laugh.IHoozdohgóó daats’í deeshááł ’éí doodaii’ Be’eldííldahsínilgóó deeshááł.
Phoenix-toward maybe 1-walk.F or Albuquerque-toward 1-walk.FK’ad ’ałníí’góó ’eeshtł’óół doo yę́ę ła’ damóo yę́ędą́ą́’ t’áadoo ’asétł’ǫ́ǫ da.
now half-toward 1-weave.Prog future past one Sunday when.past NEG 1-weave.P NEGI could have been halfway through weaving, but last week I didn’t weave at all.
bookmark- Progressive (Prog)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’ashtł’ó weavefind in Navajo Verb Modes
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’ashtł’ó weavefind in Navajo Verb Modes
- k’ad nowfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -góó to, toward, along, on, with a numeral it indicates a datefind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- goal
- -dą́ą́’ past timefind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- time
- yę́ędą́ą́’ past
Kin bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ hadah ’adzííłhaal ndi t’áadoo ’ádadénih da.
house 3-to-from down 1-tumble.P but NEG RFLX-1-hurt.P NEGI tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt.
bookmark- -ghą́ą́h attaching to, hitched to, connected tofind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- -dę́ę́’ from a general location or point in space or time, also out of, off offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ndi but
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- t’áadoo notfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
Na’ná’á biyaa góne’ dóó báhátis ’adiłt’oh.
bridge 3-under below and 3-across 3-3-shoot.PNaakidi ’oolkiłgo ’áko ’índa ’áajigo dah diiyá.
two.at time-GO after.that. towards.GO start 1.go.INanise’ígíí ch’iiyáán daohsą́ ’áko bee nihits’íís bitah ya’ádahoot’ééh dooleeł.
plant-ÍGÍÍ food pl-2-eat.I so 3-with 2pl-body 3-among pl-3-good.NI futureNaʼahóóhai baa nídiikai ʼakó ʼakʼidahiʼniłí bee shíká ʼadíílwoł.
rodeo 3-about 1pl-do.pl.F so saddle.blanket 3-with 1-after 2-help.FNeezdáago ’índa yiyííłtsą́.
3-sit.P-Comp only.then 3-3-see.PNídeezidgo ’índa hoł ní’deeswod.
month-GO only.then 4-with 2-drive.back.FNíléígóó díní’į́į́’ shidíiniidgo ’áádóó ’áajigo déé’į́į́’.
over.there-toward 2-look.I 1-3-say.P-GO and.then that.way-toward 1-look.PShi’dizhchį́į́ yęędą́ą́’ ’éí tsinaabąąs dahólǫ́ nt’éé.
1-pass-born.P past TOP wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I pl-be.NI pastShich’ahashkéé léi’ doo bíká ’iishyeed da.
1-3-upset.I since NEG 3-for 1-help.I NEGShimá dóó shizhé’é Yootóodi ’ółta’ ńt’éé’.
1-mother and 1-father Santa.Fe-at 3-go.to.school.NI pastShimá tanaashgiizh ’áyiilaago ’áádóó deiilts’ee’.
1-mother pudding 3-make.P-GO and.then pl-3-1dpl-eat.MM.PShimá bighangóó shíni’ ńt’éé’ ch’ééh déyáago shił náhoogéé’.
1-mother 3-home-to 1-desire.to.go past in.vain 1-go.P-GO 1-with ho-become.lazy.XI wanted to go to my mother’s house however I was tired and became lazy.
bookmarkShį́įgo ’ahbínígo ’ashdladi dóó ’ałníi’go k’adę́ę ha’a’aah łeh.
summer-GO morning-GO five-at and half-GO almost 3-sunrise.I usuallyTsé nitsaa ’áko nidaaz.
stone 3-big CONJ 3-heavyTsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.PI crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.
bookmark- -dę́ę́’ from a general location or point in space or time, also out of, off offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- dóó and, and then
- -jį́’ up to, as far asfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ninish’nééh crawl to a pointfind in Navajo Verb Modes