Introduction to Conjunctions

This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.

This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.

Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.

Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:

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(1)
Joe dóó Louise hataał.
Joe and Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe and Louise are singing.

The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:

(2)
Joe hataał.
Joe 3-sing.CI
Joe is singing.
(3)
*Joe Louise hataał.
Joe Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe Louise is singing.

Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.

In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:

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(4)
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
Joe and Louise and Kii pl-3-sing.CI
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing.

The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:

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(5)
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.

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(6)
Na’ná’á biyaa góne’ dóó báhátis ’adiłt’oh.
bridge 3-under below and 3-across 3-3-shoot.P
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it.

Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:

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(7)
Kin Łánídi naashnish háálá ’áadi shaghan.
Flagstaff 1-work.I because there 1-live.NI
I work in Flagstaff because I live there.

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(8)
Kin bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ hadah ’adzííłhaal ndi t’áadoo ’ádadénih da.
house 3-to-from down 1-tumble.P but NEG RFLX-1-hurt.P NEG
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt.

The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).

Navajo English Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? categories that can be conjoined
dóó ‘and’/‘and then’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP
’áádóó ‘and then’ yes clause
’áko ‘so, so that, so then’ yes clause
’áko ’índa ‘when, then’ yes clause
’áko ndi ‘even so, even then’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ‘then maybe/ then probably’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ’índa ‘then only’ yes clause
doodago ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
doodaii’ ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
-go no clause, NP
háálá ‘for, because’ yes clause
-ii’ ‘and, and thereupon’ yes clause
’índa ‘and only then’ no clause
léi’ ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ yes clause
ndi ‘but’ yes clause
’azhą́…ndi ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) clause
ńt’éé’ past maybe clause
yę́ędą́ą́’ past no clause
NP
noun phrase
PP
postpositional phrase
EP
postpositional enclitic phrase

With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.

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(9)
Shilééchąą’í bił na’nishkaadgo jooł bá ’abíńjíshhałgo yikéé’ náádiilwo’.
1-dog 3-with 1-herd.CI ball 3-for 3-1-bat.R-GO 3-after 3-run.R
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them.

The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:

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(10)
’Ádihodideesht’ih sha’shin nisingo t’áadoo ’atah haasdzíi’ da.
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble.

Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Some observations

Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).

When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)

Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.

Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.

An example search has returned 50 entries

’Ak’éégo ’éí chizh niléí keehaidi ninahdahiigééh nt’éé’.

autumn-GO that wood over.there winter.camp-at pl-3-1-unload.P past

’Azhą́ deesk’aaz ndi t’áá ’ákwíí jį́ na’nishkaad.

even. though 3-cold.SPN but just every day 1-herd CI

’Azhą́ hasistih ndi t’ah honishyóí.

even.though 1-be.old-P even.though still 1-be.energetic.NI
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Even though I’m old I am still energetic.

’Ałk’idą́ą́’ tł’oh naadą́ą́’ dant’į́įhgo łį́į́’ doodaii’ béégashii da há hadahwiił’éés ńt’éé’.

long.ago grass corn 3-ripen.I-GO horse or cow etc. 4-for 3-stomp.I past

’Áko ’índa yáníłti’ bidííniid.

after.that 2.talk.I 3-1.told.P
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After that I told him to speak.

’áko ndi

CONJ
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even so, even then

’Áłtsé biba’ dooleeł ’áko shį́į́ ’índa nih dah adidoolwoł.

first 3.for will until then only 1.with start 3-drive.F

’Áłtsé da’ííyą́ą́’ ’áko shį́į́ ’índa hooghandi nákai.

first 3.eat.P until then only home.at 3.pl.return.P
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First they ate, only until then they returned home.

’Ííłta’ dóó ’iiłghaazh.

1-read.P CONJ 1-sleep.P

’Ólta’góó daats’í deeshááł doodaii’ jooł bee nideeshneeł.

school-toward maybe 1-walk.F or ball 3-with 1-play.F

Ániid ’iiyą́ą́’áko ndi t’ah dichin nisin.

recently 1-eat.P even then still 3-hungry 1-want.NI

-ii’

CONJ
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and, and thereupon

Bááh łikanígíí ła’ nisin háálá ayóo łikan.

bread 3-be.sweet.NI.NOM some 3-1-want.NI because very 3-be.sweet.NI
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I want some cake because it is really good.

Chidí bitoo’ hadi’dííłbį́į́łgo ’índa Na’azhǫǫshgóó diikah.

car 3-fuel 3.fill.up-GO.P only.then casino-GOO 3pl.go.F
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Fill up the gas and we’ll go to the casino.

Chidí łizhinígíí doodago łigaaígíí daats’í nahideeshnih?

car black-nom or white-nom perhaps 3-2-buy.F

Daango k’ééda’dilyééh nt’éé’ t’áádoo k’ééda’diilyáa da.

spring-GO 3-plant.R past NEG 3-3-plant.P NEG

Damóogo ’áłah ’aleeh ’áko ’áadi nihaadíínááł.

Sunday 3-gather 3-be so there-at 1-Pl-to-2-arrive.F

Diné bikéyah bikáa’gi ndahonidzood yę́ędą́ą́’ Naatsis’áán hoolyégóó niha’áłchíní bił ’adahineet’į́į́’.

Navajo 3-land 3-on-at pl-areal-3-flee.pl.P past Navajo.Mountain areal-be.called.NI-to 1pl-children 3-with pl-1dpl-sneak.off.P

Diné ła’ nizhónígo kéédahojit’į́ danihó’ní, ’áko ndi doo ’ákót’ée da.

people some 3-nice.NI-GO pl-4-3-reside.NI 3-Pl. so but NEG 4-think.CI NEG

Díí éé’ shił nizhónígo nahideeshniih nisin nt’éé’ ’áko ndi ayóo ilį́į́ .

this clothing 1-with 3-like-GO 3-1-buy.F 1-think.Cl Past even then very 3-expensive Disc

Doo ’áádę́ę́’ naagháa da nít’éé’áłt’ąą nida’iilyéego ’índa níyá.

NEG there.from 3-go.about.I NEG past after.all pass.pay.I-go only.then 3-arrive.P

Doo hazhó’ó ’adiist’a’ da léi’ t’óó shaa daadloh.

NEG good reflex-1.hear.NI NEG since just me.at pl.3.laugh.I
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They really laughed at me since I can hardly hear.

doodago

CONJ
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or

dóó

CONJ
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and, and then

Hágo daaníigo ’áko ’índa ’ákǫ́ǫ́ níyá.

come.here 3.say.P-GO after.that towards 1.arrive.P
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They said come over here, after that I went there.

Háí dahoneesná, Kinłánídę́ę́’ ’Óola yee ’ádadójíhígíí doodago Gah Bikee’ Taah Yí’áhídę́ę́’ Hado yee ’ádadójíhígíí daats’í?

who pl-3-win.P Denver-from nugget 3-with RFLX-pl-4-call.NI-nom or Florida-from heat 3-with RFLX-pl-4-call.NI-nom perhaps

Hííłch’į’go ’íinda ta’iideeshnih.

evening.GO until 1-mix.dough.F
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I will mix the dough towards evening.

Hooghan ’adeeshłííł ndi tsineheeshjíí’ shee ’ádin.

hogan 1-build.F but lumber 1-with 3-none.NI

Hooghan bikáá’ dah si’ánígíí bíyah da’nii’áago ’ádíílį́į́ł ’áko hooghan doo ’ałhiih nídoołdas da.

hogan 3-on up 3-sit.SPN-ÍGÍÍ 3-under pl-3-extend.NP-GO 3-2-make.F so hogan NEG RECIP-3-collapse.F NEG

Joe dóó Louise hataał.

Joe and Louise 3-sing.CI

Jooł ’ahííłhan ’áádóó ’atiin dóó ’anít’i’ báhátis ’eelts’id.

ball 3-1-throw.P and.then road and fence 3-over 3-move.SRO.P

K’idadeelyáá nit’éé’ t’óó daazgan, háálá doo nahałtin da.

1pl-plant.P past just 3pl-dry.SPN, because NEG 3-rain.CI NEG

Kii łį́į́’ yizloh léi’ yí’diiłííd.

Kii horse 3-3-rope.SP CONJ 3-3-brand.I
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Kii has roped the horse and is branding it.

Mósí dóó łééchąą’í baníłtsoodii, bił dahózhǫ́.

cat dog 3-1-feed.P-and 3-with PL-3-happy.NI

Nanise’ígíí ch’iyáán daohsą́ ’áko bee nihits’íís bitah yá’ádahoot’ééh dooleeł.

plant-ÍGÍÍ food pl-2-eat.I so 3-with 2pl-body 3-among pl-3-good.NI future

ndi

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but

Nizhónígo ha’íí’ą́ yę́ędą́ą́’ sxíiłgo da’ségis.

beautiful sunrise past quickly pl-3-1-wash.P
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I quickly did my laundry during the beautiful sunrise.

Nizhónígo ha’íí’ą́ yę́ędą́ą́’ ts’íiłgo da’ségis.

beautiful sunrise past quickly pl-3-1-wash.P
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I quickly did my laundry during the beautiful sunrise.

Níléígóó díní’į́į́’ shidíiniidgo ’áádóó ’áajigo déé’į́į́’.

over.there-toward 2-look.I 1-3-say.P-GO and.then that.way-toward 1-look.P
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I was told to look that way and then I looked that way.

Shik’is b ’ílyeed ’áko shį́į́ da’diidį́į́ł.

1-friend 3-with 3-drive CONJ 1-Pl-eat.F
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My friend is coming (by car); maybe we’ll eat then (when s/he gets here).

Shimá bílájish chiideesh’įįł, hááláayóo deesk’aaz.

1-mother 3-gloves 3-1-use.F because very 3-be.cold.P
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I am putting my mother’s gloves on because it is cold.

Shimá sání dah díníilghaazh ’ayiila’ii’, nihí yaa néíni’ką́.

1-grandmother frybread 3-3-make.P-and 1.dpl under 3-3-place.P

Shiyáázh Damóogo ’índa ’áádę́ę́’ nídeesdzá

1-son Sunday.GO will.be from 2-returning.F

Shíká ’anánílwo’ doodaii’ t’áadoo shaa nánít’íní.

1-for 3-run.R or just-neg 1-to 2-1-bother.I

Shoo, nahachagii t’óó ’ahayóí nihaanáá lá; ’áko shį́į́ baa ’ákodanosin dooleeł.

hey.look grasshopper merely many 1pl-to 3-migrate.P mirative then maybe 3-of 2pl-be.aware.NI FUT

Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.

cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P

Tsinaabąąs bee nida’abąąs yę́ędą́ą́’ shi’dizhchį́.

wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I past 1-pass-born.P

Tł’éédą́ą́’ t’áadoo hazhó’í ’ííłhaazh da léi’ bił nisin.

night.last NEG good 1.sleep.P NEG since sleepy 3-1.desire.NI
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I’m sleepy since I didn’t sleep well last night.

Yéego ’ííníłta’, she’awéé’, ’áko nizhónígo ni’dííłtah.

really 2-study.NI 1-baby so well 2-graduate.F
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Give education your best, my child, so that you can graduate.

yę́ędą́ą́’