Introduction to Conjunctions
This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.
This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.
Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.
Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:
The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:
Joe | hataał. |
Joe | 3-sing.CI |
Joe is singing. |
*Joe | Louise | hataał. |
Joe | Louise | 3-sing.CI |
Joe Louise is singing. |
Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.
In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. |
Joe | and | Louise | and | Kii | pl-3-sing.CI |
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing. |
The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ | dóó | tsédáajį’ | ninish’na’. |
cave-from | and | cliff-to | 1-crawl.P |
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff. |
Na’ná’á | biyaa | góne’ | dóó | báhátis | ’adiłt’oh. | |
bridge | 3-under | below | and | 3-across | 3-3-shoot.P | |
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it. |
Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:
Kin | Łánídi | naashnish | háálá | ’áadi | shaghan. |
Flagstaff | 1-work.I | because | there | 1-live.NI | |
I work in Flagstaff because I live there. |
Kin | bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ | hadah | ’adzííłhaal | ndi | t’áadoo | ’ádadénih | da. |
house | 3-to-from | down | 1-tumble.P | but | NEG | RFLX-1-hurt.P | NEG |
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt. |
The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).
Navajo | English | Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? | categories that can be conjoined |
---|---|---|---|
dóó | ‘and’/‘and then’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP |
’áádóó | ‘and then’ | yes | clause |
’áko | ‘so, so that, so then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ’índa | ‘when, then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ndi | ‘even so, even then’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ | ‘then maybe/ then probably’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ ’índa | ‘then only’ | yes | clause |
doodago | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
doodaii’ | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
-go | no | clause, NP | |
háálá | ‘for, because’ | yes | clause |
-ii’ | ‘and, and thereupon’ | yes | clause |
’índa | ‘and only then’ | no | clause |
léi’ | ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ | yes | clause |
ndi | ‘but’ | yes | clause |
’azhą́…ndi | ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ | yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) | clause |
ńt’éé’ | past | maybe | clause |
yę́ędą́ą́’ | past | no | clause |
- NP
- noun phrase
- PP
- postpositional phrase
- EP
- postpositional enclitic phrase
With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.
Shilééchąą’í | bił | na’nishkaadgo | jooł | bá | ’abíńjíshhałgo | yikéé’ | náádiilwo’. |
1-dog | 3-with | 1-herd.CI | ball | 3-for | 3-1-bat.R-GO | 3-after | 3-run.R |
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them. |
The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:
’Ádihodideesht’ih | sha’shin | nisingo | t’áadoo | ’atah | haasdzíi’ | da. |
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. | |
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble. |
Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Some observations
Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).
When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)
Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.
Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.
An example search has returned 50 entries
’Adą́ą́dą́ą́’ shá bíighah ’atah ’adishdiłgo ’i’íí’ą́.
yesterday 1-for 3-passing down 1-play.stick.dice.RI-GO evening’Ashiiké yázhí ła’ chidí yikáá’dę́ę́’ ’adah ’adoogoh.
boys little INDEF car 3-on-from down 3-fall.F’Azhą́ nízaadi naagháa ndi bídin nishłį́.
even.though 3-be.far.away.NI-at 3-walks even.though 3-in.need.of 1-be.NI’Ałk’idą́ą́’ ye’iitsoh lei’ jiní “łeeh nideeshbish.”
long.ago giant INDEF 4-say.P ground-into 2-1.roast.FAbínídą́ą́’ kintahgóó dah didoohkah.
morning-past town-GÓÓ up start-3pl.go.FYou all go to town in the morning. (YM1987: 344)
bookmark- I-A-Command, affirmative
- I-i-Future
- -góó to, toward, along, on, with a numeral it indicates a datefind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Future (F)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’ahbínídą́ą́’ this morningfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- dah up at an elevation, off, static, holdingfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Future (F)find in Navajo Verb Modes
Bilagáana ła’ níhit’ááh dookah jiní.
Anglo some 1Pl-close.to 3-go.Pl.F 4-say.NIbíhoosh’aah
1-learn.it.IDa’adánídi ’áts’ą́ą́’ deeshghał.
restaurant-at ribs 3-1-eat.Fdajitł’ó
pl-3DO-4dpl-weave.it.IDíidí háísh bichidí?
this who-Q 3-carDíídó’ doo ákót’ée daásh łí?
this-DÓ’ neg indef-how-3-be.NI neg-ÍSH ŁÍMaybe this is not right?
bookmarkDíkwíí lá ninááhai?
how.many Q 2-winterDoo wółtsį́į́h lágo!
Don’t start it!
bookmarkDziłdę́ę́’ hoołtį́į́ł ńt’éé’ t’áá nihich’į’jį’ ’ásdįįd.
mountain-from areal-rain.Prg past just 1pl-toward-up.to 3-disappear.PHa’át’íí shį́į́ biniinaa łééch’ąą’í nidahał’in.
what perhaps 3-because dog pl-3-bark.IHa’át’íísh Mary nayiisnii’?
What-Q Mary 3-to.buy.IHa’át’íísh náádaadi’ní?
what-Q again-pl-3dpl-say.IHaa nízahjį’ hanínáshyįh dooleeł t’áá ’ákwíí jį́?
how 3-long.N-up.to 1-rest.R FUT every dayHaaʼísh niʼnis´bąąs?
where-Q 3-1-park.Fhadadoołbįįd
pl-3DO-2dpl-fill.something.up.with.it.Pfill something up with it, 2nd person plural
bookmarkhahí
hanołchaad
3DO-2dpl-card.it.(as.in.wool).IHáágóó lá Bíl doogááł nízin Jáan?
where-toward Q Bill 3-go.sg.F 3-want.CI Johnháidí
Háísh yiską́ągo ’adoogis?
who-Q tomorrow 3-wash.Fjiłbéézh
3DO-4-boil.it.IK’ad shicheii bíká ’iishyeed.
now 1-grandfather 3-for 1-run.IKwe’é k’ad łe’esh’aah.
here now earth-1-put.into.I.SROKwe’éshą’ haa nízah nináhálzhishgo nináháltį́į́h?
here-Q how 3-long.N-up.to time.move.R-GO rain.RNa’nííshee’ dóó k’ad éí dah ’iishtł’ó.
3-1-warp.P and now TOP up 3-1-tie.DINaadą́ą́’ lá haa néelą́ą́’ nida’ak’eh biyi’ góne’?
corn Q how 3.much.N 2-cornfield 3-in thereNaakaii bizaad jółta’ le’ dzinízingo dzizdá.
mexican language 4-read.I wish 4-wish.O-GO 4-sit.PNaalyéhé bá hooghandi tł’oh hániikai ńt’éé’ ’áníídí yee’ ’ásdįįd lágo ’áadi niikai.
trading.post-at hay 1dpl-go.pl.P past recently very 3-disappear.P DISC-GO there 1dpl-go.pl.PWe went to the trading post after hay only to find that the supply had just run out.
bookmark- -á for, for the benefit offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- benefactive
- -di atfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- location
- ńt’éé’ relates to past timefind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- time
- ’ániidígo recently, not long agofind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- time
- -go verb and subordinating encliticfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon