Introduction to Conjunctions

This lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. Conjunctions combine two or more sentences or phrases into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.

This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs, and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish coordination from subordination.

Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence the meaning of the conjunction.

Coordination is a kind of syntactic structure that allows two similar constituents to act as one. For example, Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below:

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(1)
Joe dóó Louise hataał.
Joe and Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe and Louise are singing.

The verb hataał is intransitive, meaning that it can have only one argument:

(2)
Joe hataał.
Joe 3-sing.CI
Joe is singing.
(3)
*Joe Louise hataał.
Joe Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe Louise is singing.

Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people, the sentence does not make sense because the verb is intransitive. Coordination, used in (1), allows two or more phrases to act as one.

In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will need to have a plural marker in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:

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(4)
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
Joe and Louise and Kii pl-3-sing.CI
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing.

The examples above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:

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(5)
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.

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(6)
Na’ná’á biyaa góne’ dóó báhátis ’adiłt’oh.
bridge 3-under below and 3-across 3-3-shoot.P
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it.

Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:

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(7)
Kin Łánídi naashnish háálá ’áadi shaghan.
Flagstaff 1-work.I because there 1-live.NI
I work in Flagstaff because I live there.

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(8)
Kin bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ hadah ’adzííłhaal ndi t’áadoo ’ádadénih da.
house 3-to-from down 1-tumble.P but NEG RFLX-1-hurt.P NEG
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt.

The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Navajo English Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? categories that can be conjoined
dóó ‘and’/‘and then’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP
’áádóó ‘and then’ yes clause
’áko ‘so, so that, so then’ yes clause
’áko ’índa ‘when, then’ yes clause
’áko ndi ‘even so, even then’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ‘then maybe/ then probably’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ’índa ‘then only’ yes clause
doodago ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
doodaii’ ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
-go no clause, NP
háálá ‘for, because’ yes clause
-ii’ ‘and, and thereupon’ yes clause
’índa ‘and only then’ no clause
léi’ ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ yes clause
ndi ‘but’ yes clause
’azhą́…ndi ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) clause
ńt’éé’ past maybe clause
yę́ędą́ą́’ past no clause
NP
noun phrase
PP
postpositional phrase
EP
postpositional enclitic phrase

Subordination is a different way that two sentences can be combined into one. The enclitic -go attached to the first sentence subordinates it to the second:

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(9)
Shilééchąą’í bił na’nishkaadgo jooł bá ’abíńjíshhałgo yikéé’ náádiilwo’.
1-dog 3-with 1-herd.CI ball 3-for 3-1-bat.R-GO 3-after 3-run.R
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them.

The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:

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(10)
’Ádihodideesht’ih sha’shin nisingo t’áadoo ’atah haasdzíi’ da.
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble.

Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Some observations

Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).

When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)

Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.

Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.

An example search has returned 50 entries

’Akóyaa ’adah, t’áá baa ’áhólchįįh.

there-down down, just 3-to 2-aware.NI

-na’

-tsąąh

bik’ídédiz

3DO-1-wrap.it.around.it.P

Bikáá’ dah ’asdáhí bikáa’gi doodaai’ ni’góó daats’í nishdaah?

chair 3-top-at or floor-on perhaps 1-sit.NI

Ch’ééh jiyáán hastiin baa nahashniihgo ch’ééh ’ííł’įįd ’ahbínídą́ą́’.

watermelon man 3-from 3-1-buy.CI-GO tried in.vain 1-act.P morning-past

Chidí sits’ą́ą́’ hashtł’ish yiih yilwodgo t’áá ch’į́į́góó ch’ééh ’ííł’įįd.

car 1-from mud 3-into 3-go.P-GO failure in.vain 1-act.P

Chidíísh bee hólǫ́ ’éí doodago ni daats’í ła’ nee hólǫ́?

car-Q 3-with 4-exist.N TOP or 2 maybe one 2-with 4-exist.NI

Chidíísh bee hólǫ́ doodaii’ ni daats’í chidí nee hólǫ́?

car-Q 3-with 4-exist.NI or you perhaps car 2-with 4-exist.NI

da’

daats’í

dajishóóh

pl-3DO-4dpl-brush/comb.it.I

deigo

didiiljeeh

3DO-1dpl-start.fire.I

Díidí háísh bichidí?

this who-Q 3-car

Díí ’abíní dibé tóógóó neeshkał.

this morning sheep water-to 3-1-herd.Prog

Díí hastiin tł’ééjí hataałgo bee béého’doolzįįd.

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This man became famous as a Night Chant singer.

Doo t’áá k’ad chidí na’ní’ą́ą da.

NEG just now vehicle 2-3-1-lend.P NEG
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I don’t want to lend you a car.

Doo t’áá k’ad bá’ólta’í sélį́į’ da.

NEG just now teacher 1-be.SPN NEG
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I don’t want to become a teacher.

Ha’át’éegoshą’ t’áadoo ’azee’ál’į́į́góó nisíníyáa da?

why-Q NEG hospital-to 2-go.sg.P NEG

ha’át’éégóó

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where to

Ha’át’íísh nizhé’é yaa naaghá?

what-Q 2-father 3-about 3-do.CI

Ha’át’ííshą’ hastiin dóó ’at’ééd ’áyiilaa?

what-Q man and girl 3-3-make.P

hadanoołchaad

pl-3DO-2dpl-card.it.(as.in.wool).P

hadaoołgizh

pl-3DO-2dpl-cut.it.out.P

hadeeshtééł

3DO-1-carry.him/her.up.out.of.something.F

hajiłgéésh

3DO-4-cut.it.out.I

hanii

haoołgizh

3DO-2dpl-cut.it.out.P

Hastiin sání léi’ ’áłchíní bił yanáa’áago yił nahalne’.

man old INDEF children 3-with 3-pile.NI-COMP 3-with 3-tell.CI
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An old man is telling stories to a pile of children. (Lit. the children are piled with him)

Hái da shą’ tsinaa’eeł ’ájiilaa?

who DA Q boat 3-4-make.P

Hodíína’go ch’í’deeshnił.

later.GO out.animals.F
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I’ll take out the animals soon.

háágeed

3DO-1-dig.it.out.P

jiłhį́į́h

3DO-4-melt.it.(snow).I

John dáádílkałdóó sizį́į́ dóó ’áádę́ę́’ déez’į́į́’.

John door-from 3-stand.SPN and there-from 3-look.CI
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John is standing at the doorway and looking this way.

Kin Łánídi daats’í ’éí doodago Bee’eldííldahsinildiísh naniná?

Flagstaff-at perhaps or Albuquerque-at-Q 2-go.around.CI

Na’nízhoozhídę́ę́’ shíká b ’oolwoł.

Gallup-from 1-for 3-with 3-drive.I

Naakidi ’oolkiłgo ’áko ’índa ’áajigo dah diiyá.

two.at time-GO after.that. towards.GO start 1.go.I
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After 2 o’clock I started to go that way.

Nichidí háadi-sh nííníłbą́ą́z?

2-car where-at-Q 3-2-park.P

nideidooleeł

pl-3DO-3dpl-carry.a.ropelike.thing.around.F

nizhdooleeł

3DO-4-carry.a.ropelike.thing.around.F

N bééhózinísh ’éí doodaii’ nicheii daats’í b bééhózin?

2-with 3-know.CI-Q TOP or 2-grandfather perhaps 3-with 3-know.CI

Shilééchąą yázhí shikéé’ yildlosh ńt’éé’ hashtł’ish yiih yildloozh.

1-dog little 1-behind 3-walk.Prog past mud 3-into 3-walk.P

T’áá ’ákwíízhíní tó dah siyínígóó ’ałnánáshdááh.

every summer lake-toward again-1-go.R

Tó bee naat’ahí yę́ę bitł’áahdi yiichxii’ lá.

water canteen past 3-under-at 3-rust.P DISC
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The water canteen has gotten rusty on the bottom.

Tsinaabąąs bee nida’abąąs yę́ędą́ą́’ shi’dizhchį́.

wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I past 1-pass-born.P

Tł’ée’go shibee ni’dildlaadí bóhosésa’go ch’ééh ’ádináhweessił.

night-GO 1-flashlight 3-1-miss.P-GO in.vain reflex-around-1-grope.Prog
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When I missed my flashlight at night I groped around myself.

Tł’éédą́á’ dibé ch’íníjéé’ yiists’ą́ą́’ ’áádóó t’óó ńléí tsé deez’áhí bizánághah góne’ ’ahosoolts’ą́ą́’.

last.night sheep out-3-run-Pl.P 3-sound.P and then merely there rock point 3-around areal-in out-are
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Last night the sheep got out of the corral and the sound they made disappeared around the point of the ridge.

yishóóh

3DO-3-brush/comb.it.I

Łį́į́’ bik’i dah ’ashishnííł.

horse 3-on up 3-1-saddle.I