Introduction to Conjunctions

This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.

This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.

Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.

Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:

listenloadingplaying

(1)
Joe dóó Louise hataał.
Joe and Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe and Louise are singing.

The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:

(2)
Joe hataał.
Joe 3-sing.CI
Joe is singing.
(3)
*Joe Louise hataał.
Joe Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe Louise is singing.

Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.

In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:

listenloadingplaying

(4)
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
Joe and Louise and Kii pl-3-sing.CI
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing.

The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:

listenloadingplaying

(5)
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.

listenloadingplaying

(6)
Na’ná’á biyaa góne’ dóó báhátis ’adiłt’oh.
bridge 3-under below and 3-across 3-3-shoot.P
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it.

Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:

listenloadingplaying

(7)
Kin Łánídi naashnish háálá ’áadi shaghan.
Flagstaff 1-work.I because there 1-live.NI
I work in Flagstaff because I live there.

listenloadingplaying

(8)
Kin bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ hadah ’adzííłhaal ndi t’áadoo ’ádadénih da.
house 3-to-from down 1-tumble.P but NEG RFLX-1-hurt.P NEG
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt.

The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).

Navajo English Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? categories that can be conjoined
dóó ‘and’/‘and then’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP
’áádóó ‘and then’ yes clause
’áko ‘so, so that, so then’ yes clause
’áko ’índa ‘when, then’ yes clause
’áko ndi ‘even so, even then’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ‘then maybe/ then probably’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ’índa ‘then only’ yes clause
doodago ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
doodaii’ ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
-go no clause, NP
háálá ‘for, because’ yes clause
-ii’ ‘and, and thereupon’ yes clause
’índa ‘and only then’ no clause
léi’ ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ yes clause
ndi ‘but’ yes clause
’azhą́…ndi ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) clause
ńt’éé’ past maybe clause
yę́ędą́ą́’ past no clause
NP
noun phrase
PP
postpositional phrase
EP
postpositional enclitic phrase

With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.

listenloadingplaying

(9)
Shilééchąą’í bił na’nishkaadgo jooł bá ’abíńjíshhałgo yikéé’ náádiilwo’.
1-dog 3-with 1-herd.CI ball 3-for 3-1-bat.R-GO 3-after 3-run.R
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them.

The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:

listenloadingplaying

(10)
’Ádihodideesht’ih sha’shin nisingo t’áadoo ’atah haasdzíi’ da.
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble.

Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Some observations

Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).

When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)

Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.

Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.

An example search has returned 50 entries

’Adą́ą́dą́ą́’ shá bíighah ’atah ’adishdiłgo ’i’íí’ą́.

yesterday 1-for 3-passing down 1-play.stick.dice.RI-GO evening

’Ashiiké yázhí ła’ chidí yikáá’dę́ę́’ ’adah ’adoogoh.

boys little INDEF car 3-on-from down 3-fall.F
listenloadingplaying

One of little boys might fall off the front of the car.

’Azhą́ nízaadi naagháa ndi bídin nishłį́.

even.though 3-be.far.away.NI-at 3-walks even.though 3-in.need.of 1-be.NI
listenloadingplaying

Even though he/she is far away, I miss him/her.

’Ałk’idą́ą́’ ye’iitsoh lei’ jiní “łeeh nideeshbish.”

long.ago giant INDEF 4-say.P ground-into 2-1.roast.F
listenloadingplaying

Long ago, a giant said, “I will roast you in the pit”.

Abínídą́ą́’ kintahgóó dah didoohkah.

morning-past town-GÓÓ up start-3pl.go.F

Bilagáana ła’ níhit’ááh dookah jiní.

Anglo some 1Pl-close.to 3-go.Pl.F 4-say.NI
listenloadingplaying

It is said that some white people will move in with us.

bíhoosh’aah

1-learn.it.I

Da’adánídi ’áts’ą́ą́’ deeshghał.

restaurant-at ribs 3-1-eat.F

dajitł’ó

pl-3DO-4dpl-weave.it.I

dideididoołjah

pl-3DO-3dpl-start.fire.F

Díidí háísh bichidí?

this who-Q 3-car

Díídó’ doo ákót’ée daásh łí?

this-DÓ’ neg indef-how-3-be.NI neg-ÍSH ŁÍ

Díkwíí lá ninááhai?

how.many Q 2-winter

doo --- ndi

Doo wółtsį́į́h lágo!

Don’t start it!

Doondó’ ’ółta’ da.

NEG 3-go.school.NI NEG

Dziłdę́ę́’ hoołtį́į́ł ńt’éé’ t’áá nihich’į’jį’ ’ásdįįd.

mountain-from areal-rain.Prg past just 1pl-toward-up.to 3-disappear.P

Ha’át’íí shį́į́ biniinaa łééch’ąą’í nidahał’in.

what perhaps 3-because dog pl-3-bark.I

Ha’át’íísh Mary nayiisnii’?

What-Q Mary 3-to.buy.I

Ha’át’íísh náádaadi’ní?

what-Q again-pl-3dpl-say.I

Haa nízahjį’ hanínáshyįh dooleeł t’áá ’ákwíí jį́?

how 3-long.N-up.to 1-rest.R FUT every day

Haaʼísh niʼnis´bąąs?

where-Q 3-1-park.F

hadadoołbįįd

pl-3DO-2dpl-fill.something.up.with.it.P

hahí

hanołchaad

3DO-2dpl-card.it.(as.in.wool).I

hanííłchaad

3DO-1-card.it.(as.in.wool).P

hazhdínóołchał

3DO-4-card.it.(as.in.wool).F

Háágóó lá Bíl doogááł nízin Jáan?

where-toward Q Bill 3-go.sg.F 3-want.CI John

háidí

Háísh yiską́ągo ’adoogis?

who-Q tomorrow 3-wash.F

Hosh doo jiyą́ą da.

cactus NEG 3-4-eat.DI NEG
listenloadingplaying

One doesn’t eat cactus.

jiłbéézh

3DO-4-boil.it.I

K’ad shicheii bíká ’iishyeed.

now 1-grandfather 3-for 1-run.I

Kwe’é k’ad łe’esh’aah.

here now earth-1-put.into.I.SRO
listenloadingplaying

Now, I am putting it (SRO) into the ground here.

Kwe’éshą’ haa nízah nináhálzhishgo nináháltį́į́h?

here-Q how 3-long.N-up.to time.move.R-GO rain.R
listenloadingplaying

How often does it rain here?

Na’nííshee’ dóó k’ad éí dah ’iishtł’ó.

3-1-warp.P and now TOP up 3-1-tie.DI
listenloadingplaying

I prepared the warp and now I’m putting it up.

Naadą́ą́’ lá haa néelą́ą́’ nida’ak’eh biyi’ góne’?

corn Q how 3.much.N 2-cornfield 3-in there
listenloadingplaying

How much corn is in your cornfield?

Naakaii bizaad jółta’ le’ dzinízingo dzizdá.

mexican language 4-read.I wish 4-wish.O-GO 4-sit.P
listenloadingplaying

She is wishing he could read Spanish.

Naalyéhé hooghandi tł’oh hániikai ńt’éé’ ’áníídí yee’ ’ásdįįd lágo ’áadi niikai.

trading.post-at hay 1dpl-go.pl.P past recently very 3-disappear.P DISC-GO there 1dpl-go.pl.P
listenloadingplaying

We went to the trading post after hay only to find that the supply had just run out.

Níléidi t’áá bahat’aadí shábitł’óól noolzhee’.

There-at just clear-NOM sun.3.rays 3-rays.I
listenloadingplaying

Clearly, the sun rays are over there.

Sam ’ádił yálti’.

Sam reflx-with 3-talk.DI

Shá bíighah na’ashkǫ́ǫ́’go yiishjį́į́’ lá.

sun proportionate 1-swim.CI-GO 1-sun.burn.I DISC

Shidá’í dóola yilááh ’ábóodziil jiní.

1-Uncle bull 3-greater 3-strong.NI 4-say.P
listenloadingplaying

It is said that my uncle is stronger than a bull.

Sohodizingo t’áá ká nídoó’nééh.

prayer-GO neg 2-get.up.O

T’áá ká ’adinoólgháásh lágo.

neg 2-oversleep.O LÁGO

Tł’óodi didíłjeeh.

outside 3-2-start.fire.I

wooshóó’

3DO-2dpl-brush/comb.it.P

yidiłhį́į́h

3DO-3-melt.it.I

yiilzhóóh

3DO-1dpl-brush/comb.it.I

Łeechaʼí ʼóyą́ą́, éí nabídishgizh.

Dog 3-eat.O TOPIC 3-surgery.P
listenloadingplaying

Don´t let the dog eat, it had surgery.