Introduction to Conjunctions
This lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. Conjunctions combine two or more sentences or phrases into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.
This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs, and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish coordination from subordination.
Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence the meaning of the conjunction.
Coordination is a kind of syntactic structure that allows two similar constituents to act as one. For example, Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below:
The verb hataał is intransitive, meaning that it can have only one argument:
Joe | hataał. |
Joe | 3-sing.CI |
Joe is singing. |
*Joe | Louise | hataał. |
Joe | Louise | 3-sing.CI |
Joe Louise is singing. |
Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people, the sentence does not make sense because the verb is intransitive. Coordination, used in (1), allows two or more phrases to act as one.
In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will need to have a plural marker in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. |
Joe | and | Louise | and | Kii | pl-3-sing.CI |
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing. |
The examples above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ | dóó | tsédáajį’ | ninish’na’. |
cave-from | and | cliff-to | 1-crawl.P |
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff. |
Na’ná’á | biyaa | góne’ | dóó | báhátis | ’adiłt’oh. | |
bridge | 3-under | below | and | 3-across | 3-3-shoot.P | |
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it. |
Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:
Kin | Łánídi | naashnish | háálá | ’áadi | shaghan. |
Flagstaff | 1-work.I | because | there | 1-live.NI | |
I work in Flagstaff because I live there. |
Kin | bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ | hadah | ’adzííłhaal | ndi | t’áadoo | ’ádadénih | da. |
house | 3-to-from | down | 1-tumble.P | but | NEG | RFLX-1-hurt.P | NEG |
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt. |
The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Navajo | English | Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? | categories that can be conjoined |
---|---|---|---|
dóó | ‘and’/‘and then’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP |
’áádóó | ‘and then’ | yes | clause |
’áko | ‘so, so that, so then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ’índa | ‘when, then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ndi | ‘even so, even then’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ | ‘then maybe/ then probably’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ ’índa | ‘then only’ | yes | clause |
doodago | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
doodaii’ | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
-go | no | clause, NP | |
háálá | ‘for, because’ | yes | clause |
-ii’ | ‘and, and thereupon’ | yes | clause |
’índa | ‘and only then’ | no | clause |
léi’ | ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ | yes | clause |
ndi | ‘but’ | yes | clause |
’azhą́…ndi | ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ | yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) | clause |
ńt’éé’ | past | maybe | clause |
yę́ędą́ą́’ | past | no | clause |
- NP
- noun phrase
- PP
- postpositional phrase
- EP
- postpositional enclitic phrase
Subordination is a different way that two sentences can be combined into one. The enclitic -go attached to the first sentence subordinates it to the second:
Shilééchąą’í | bił | na’nishkaadgo | jooł | bá | ’abíńjíshhałgo | yikéé’ | náádiilwo’. |
1-dog | 3-with | 1-herd.CI | ball | 3-for | 3-1-bat.R-GO | 3-after | 3-run.R |
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them. |
The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:
’Ádihodideesht’ih | sha’shin | nisingo | t’áadoo | ’atah | haasdzíi’ | da. |
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. | |
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble. |
Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Some observations
Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).
When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)
Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.
Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.
An example search has returned 50 entries
’Akóyaa ’adah, t’áá baa ’áhólchįįh.
there-down down, just 3-to 2-aware.NI-na’
beside, at one’s side, in place of, waiting for
bookmark-tsąąh
Bikáá’ dah ’asdáhí bikáa’gi doodaai’ ni’góó daats’í nishdaah?
chair 3-top-at or floor-on perhaps 1-sit.NICh’ééh jiyáán hastiin baa nahashniihgo ch’ééh ’ííł’įįd ’ahbínídą́ą́’.
watermelon man 3-from 3-1-buy.CI-GO tried in.vain 1-act.P morning-pastI tried in vain to buy a watermelon from a man this morning.
bookmark- Continuative Imperfective (CI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- nahashniih buy, sellfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’asht’í actfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’ahbínídą́ą́’ this morningfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -aa tofind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
Chidí sits’ą́ą́’ hashtł’ish yiih yilwodgo t’áá ch’į́į́góó ch’ééh ’ííł’įįd.
car 1-from mud 3-into 3-go.P-GO failure in.vain 1-act.PI did everything possible to get my car out of the mud.
bookmark- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- yilyeed go, runfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- Perfective (P) (yi, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’asht’í actfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- t’áá ch’į́į́góó failurefind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -iih intofind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
Chidíísh bee hólǫ́ ’éí doodago ni daats’í ła’ nee hólǫ́?
car-Q 3-with 4-exist.N TOP or 2 maybe one 2-with 4-exist.NIChidíísh bee hólǫ́ doodaii’ ni daats’í chidí nee hólǫ́?
car-Q 3-with 4-exist.NI or you perhaps car 2-with 4-exist.NIDoes s/he have a car or do you have a car?
bookmarkdajishóóh
pl-3DO-4dpl-brush/comb.it.Ididiiljeeh
3DO-1dpl-start.fire.IDíidí háísh bichidí?
this who-Q 3-carDíí ’abíní dibé tóógóó neeshkał.
this morning sheep water-to 3-1-herd.ProgDíí hastiin tł’ééjí hataałgo bee béého’doolzįįd.
Doo t’áá k’ad chidí na’ní’ą́ą da.
NEG just now vehicle 2-3-1-lend.P NEGDoo t’áá k’ad bá’ólta’í sélį́į’ da.
NEG just now teacher 1-be.SPN NEGHa’át’éegoshą’ t’áadoo ’azee’ál’į́į́góó nisíníyáa da?
why-Q NEG hospital-to 2-go.sg.P NEGha’át’éégóó
Ha’át’íísh nizhé’é yaa naaghá?
what-Q 2-father 3-about 3-do.CIHa’át’ííshą’ hastiin dóó ’at’ééd ’áyiilaa?
what-Q man and girl 3-3-make.PWhat did the man and the girl make?
bookmarkhadaoołgizh
pl-3DO-2dpl-cut.it.out.Phadeeshtééł
3DO-1-carry.him/her.up.out.of.something.Fcarry him/her up out of something, 1st person singular
bookmarkhajiłgéésh
3DO-4-cut.it.out.Ihaoołgizh
3DO-2dpl-cut.it.out.PHastiin sání léi’ ’áłchíní bił yanáa’áago yił nahalne’.
man old INDEF children 3-with 3-pile.NI-COMP 3-with 3-tell.CIHái da shą’ tsinaa’eeł ’ájiilaa?
who DA Q boat 3-4-make.PHodíína’go ch’í’deeshnił.
later.GO out.animals.Fháágeed
3DO-1-dig.it.out.Pjiłhį́į́h
3DO-4-melt.it.(snow).IJohn dáádílkałdóó sizį́į́ dóó ’áádę́ę́’ déez’į́į́’.
John door-from 3-stand.SPN and there-from 3-look.CIKin Łánídi daats’í ’éí doodago Bee’eldííldahsinildiísh naniná?
Flagstaff-at perhaps or Albuquerque-at-Q 2-go.around.CINa’nízhoozhídę́ę́’ shíká bił ’oolwoł.
Gallup-from 1-for 3-with 3-drive.IS/he is driving from Gallup to get me.
bookmark- -dę́ę́’ from a general location or point in space or time, also out of, off offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- -ká after, forfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- benefactive
- -ił withfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Imperfective (I) (∅, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’oolwoł drivefind in Navajo Verb Modes
Naakidi ’oolkiłgo ’áko ’índa ’áajigo dah diiyá.
two.at time-GO after.that. towards.GO start 1.go.INichidí háadi-sh nííníłbą́ą́z?
2-car where-at-Q 3-2-park.Pnideidooleeł
pl-3DO-3dpl-carry.a.ropelike.thing.around.Fcarry a ropelike thing around, 3rd person plural
bookmarknizhdooleeł
3DO-4-carry.a.ropelike.thing.around.Fcarry a ropelike thing around, 4th person
bookmarkNił bééhózinísh ’éí doodaii’ nicheii daats’í bił bééhózin?
2-with 3-know.CI-Q TOP or 2-grandfather perhaps 3-with 3-know.CIDo you know or does your grandfather know?
bookmark- -ił withfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- accompaniment
- Continuative Imperfective (CI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- nisin think, wantfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- -ísh enclitic for yes/no questionsfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- doodaii’ particle orfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- daats’í particle for perhapsfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- Continuative Imperfective (CI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- nisin think, wantfind in Navajo Verb Modes