Introduction to Conjunctions
This lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. Conjunctions combine two or more sentences or phrases into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.
This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs, and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish coordination from subordination.
Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence the meaning of the conjunction.
Coordination is a kind of syntactic structure that allows two similar constituents to act as one. For example, Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below:
The verb hataał is intransitive, meaning that it can have only one argument:
Joe | hataał. |
Joe | 3-sing.CI |
Joe is singing. |
*Joe | Louise | hataał. |
Joe | Louise | 3-sing.CI |
Joe Louise is singing. |
Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people, the sentence does not make sense because the verb is intransitive. Coordination, used in (1), allows two or more phrases to act as one.
In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will need to have a plural marker in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. |
Joe | and | Louise | and | Kii | pl-3-sing.CI |
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing. |
The examples above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ | dóó | tsédáajį’ | ninish’na’. |
cave-from | and | cliff-to | 1-crawl.P |
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff. |
Na’ná’á | biyaa | góne’ | dóó | báhátis | ’adiłt’oh. | |
bridge | 3-under | below | and | 3-across | 3-3-shoot.P | |
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it. |
Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:
Kin | Łánídi | naashnish | háálá | ’áadi | shaghan. |
Flagstaff | 1-work.I | because | there | 1-live.NI | |
I work in Flagstaff because I live there. |
Kin | bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ | hadah | ’adzííłhaal | ndi | t’áadoo | ’ádadénih | da. |
house | 3-to-from | down | 1-tumble.P | but | NEG | RFLX-1-hurt.P | NEG |
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt. |
The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Navajo | English | Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? | categories that can be conjoined |
---|---|---|---|
dóó | ‘and’/‘and then’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP |
’áádóó | ‘and then’ | yes | clause |
’áko | ‘so, so that, so then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ’índa | ‘when, then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ndi | ‘even so, even then’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ | ‘then maybe/ then probably’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ ’índa | ‘then only’ | yes | clause |
doodago | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
doodaii’ | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
-go | no | clause, NP | |
háálá | ‘for, because’ | yes | clause |
-ii’ | ‘and, and thereupon’ | yes | clause |
’índa | ‘and only then’ | no | clause |
léi’ | ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ | yes | clause |
ndi | ‘but’ | yes | clause |
’azhą́…ndi | ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ | yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) | clause |
ńt’éé’ | past | maybe | clause |
yę́ędą́ą́’ | past | no | clause |
- NP
- noun phrase
- PP
- postpositional phrase
- EP
- postpositional enclitic phrase
Subordination is a different way that two sentences can be combined into one. The enclitic -go attached to the first sentence subordinates it to the second:
Shilééchąą’í | bił | na’nishkaadgo | jooł | bá | ’abíńjíshhałgo | yikéé’ | náádiilwo’. |
1-dog | 3-with | 1-herd.CI | ball | 3-for | 3-1-bat.R-GO | 3-after | 3-run.R |
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them. |
The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:
’Ádihodideesht’ih | sha’shin | nisingo | t’áadoo | ’atah | haasdzíi’ | da. |
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. | |
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble. |
Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Some observations
Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).
When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)
Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.
Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.
An example search has returned 50 entries
’Awééh kweʼé ninishteeh, adaʼoogeeh.
baby here 3-carry.AnO.I 3-fall.O’Ánísts’ísí yę́ędą́ą́’ Kintahdi shi yaa hoo’a’ ’éí biniinaa díshní.
1-small.NI past town-at 1-possessive 3-of 3-space.P TOP because 3-1-say.NIBack when I was young, I grew up in town which is why I don’t know.
bookmark’Áłah ’aleehgo ch’iyáán ’ádadiilnííł ’áko shį́į́ ’índa diné ndahidookah.
meeting-Comp food 3-1-Pl-make.F CONJ people 3-Pl.will-arrive.F"Binák’eegóó baa da’ashch’osh lá," didíínííł.
3-eye-between-around 3-to pl-3-infest.P DISC 3-2-tell.F-kéé’
-lááh
-yaa
Ch’é’étiingóó naanéhígíí shił bééhózin.
entrance-along 3-play.I-COMP 1-with 3-know.NICh’éénísh’į́įgo náá’deeshtł’óół nissin.
out summer.GO 1-again.weave.F 1-desireChidí naat’a’í nihił dah diit’a’.
airplane 1dpl-with up 3-fly.PDa’ Ron saad nináánéíłkaah ya’?
Q Ron word 3-3-investigate.I QRon’s investigating words again?
bookmarkDibéésh nee hólǫ́?
sheep-Q 2-with 4-exist.NIDíí chąą’ shą’ háádę́ę́’ niníyęęzh?
this manure-Q where-from 3-ooze.PDíí hastiin tł’ééjí hataałgo bee béého’doolzįįd.
Dlǫ́ǫ́’ ’akǫ́ǫ́ náájilwod.
Prairie Dog LOC-there It. 4-2-run.IDoo ’atiin bąąhgóó ch’il ’ahwééh ’áłah ’ájíléeh da.
NEG road 3-beside-along plant coffee together 3-4-gather.SFO.I NEGDon’t gather tea along the roadside.
bookmark- I-A-Indirect command with negation
- doo --- da frame to negativize verbs and phrasesfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- I-i-4th person admonition, negative, Imperfective
- -ąąh on, besidefind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- location
- -góó to, toward, along, on, with a numeral it indicates a datefind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Imperfective (I) (∅, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
Doo deighánígóó łeeyi’ ’azhnígeed.
NEG far ground-inside 3-4-dig.PHa’át’íí́sh baa hane’?
What Q 3-for be.told.CIhaa nízahdę́ę́’ hoolzhiizh
haołgéésh
3DO-2dpl-cut.it.out.IHáadi niyaa hazlį́į́’?
where-at 2-under area-grow.PKii łį́į́’ yizloh léi’ yí’diiłííd.
Kii horse 3-3-rope.SP CONJ 3-3-brand.IKwe’éshą’ haa nízah nináhálzhishgo nináháltį́į́h?
here-Q how 3-long.N-up.to time.move.R-GO rain.RMary bimá sání yá ’ata’ halne’.
Mary 3-grandmother 3-for indef-between 3-talk.DINaakaii Bito’gi béégashii bee łá’í ’ídlínígíí bee ’anishtah.
mexican water-at cow 3-with one-unify.P-COMP 3-with 1-among.NINáńsdzáago t’áá ’íídą́ą́’ ’ííníyą́ą’ dooleeł.
back-1-go.sg.P-GO just already INDEF-2-eat.P FUTNíwe, bíni'dii ’áyą́!
stop 3-let 3-3-eat.Inéishjį́į́h
Iterative Mode: 1-become.black.RSha’áłchíní Toohgóó bił ’eesbąs.
1-children Shiprock-to 3-with 1-drive.ProgShideezhí dóó sítsílí bidááh sézį́.
1-younger.sister and 1-younger.brother 2-in.front.of 1-stand.SPNShidibé ’ąą’ dinót’į́į́ł laanaa ch’ééh nisin.
1-sheep expanse 3-increase.O wish in.vain 1-want.CIShighanídóó ’e’e’aah bich’ijígo shádí bighan.
1-home-from west 3-in.the.direction.of older.sister 3-dwell.NShilééchąą’í bił na’nishkaadgo jooł bá ’abíńjíshhałgo yikéé’ náádiilwo’.
1-dog 3-with 1-herd.CI ball 3-for 3-1-bat.R-GO 3-after 3-run.RWhen I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them.
bookmark- -ił withfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- accompaniment
- -go verb and subordinating encliticfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -á for, for the benefit offind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- benefactive
- -kéé’ behind, followingfind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- Continuative Imperfective (CI)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- na’nishkaad herd, go out herdingfind in Navajo Verb Modes
- Iterative (R)find in Navajo Verb Modes
Shimá nitsii’ yiilch’ííł áádóó bíni’ t’áá’ ákót’ée doo.
1-mom 2-hair 3-2-curl.I and.then let.be just it.is will.be.FT’áá ká ’ooshháásh.
neg 1-go.to.sleep.OTooh ńlínigíí t’óó bááłk’iis yisháałgo shee ’i’íí’ą́.
river merely 3-alongside 1-walk.Prog 1-with evening timeTs’ídá ’iishxáashgo shiyáázh bił ná’ílwod.
about 1-to.sleep 1-son with 3-drove.in.again.RTsékooh góyaa tł’óół bee ’adanásh’nah.
canyon areal-down 3-with 1-climb.down.RTsinaabąąs bee nida’abąąs yę́ędą́ą́’ shi’dizhchį́.
wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I past 1-pass-born.Pyiilzhóó’
3DO-1dpl-brush/comb.it.Pyiishjį́į́h
Usitative Mode: 1-become.black.UYiską́ągo díí doo ’íídííłtah da. (K’ad tsxíiłgo ’ííníłta’.)
tomorrow this NEG 3-2-read.F NEG (now quickly 3-2-read.I)Don’t read this tomorrow. (Read it now.)
bookmark- I-A-Command, negative
- Future (F)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- I-A-Command, affirmative
- I-i-Imperfective
- yiską́ągo tomorrowfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- doo --- da frame to negativize verbs and phrasesfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Future (F)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- k’ad nowfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- tsxį́įłgo quickly, fastfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Imperfective (I) (∅, ni, si, yi-∅)find in Navajo Verb Modes
Yiską́ągo Na’nízhoozhígóó deet’áazhgo haa’í lá ’adiidį́į́ł?
tomorrow Gallup-to 1dpl-go.du.F-GO where Q 1pdl-eat.FWhen we go to Gallup tomorrow, where shall we eat?
bookmark- yiską́ągo tomorrowfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- -góó to, toward, along, on, with a numeral it indicates a datefind in Navajo Postposition Lexicon
- -go verb and subordinating encliticfind in Navajo Adverb Lexicon
- Future (F)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- déyá start to gofind in Navajo Verb Modes
- haa’í wherefind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- lá particle for content questionsfind in Navajo Questions Lexicon
- Future (F)find in Navajo Verb Modes
- ’ashą́ eatfind in Navajo Verb Modes