Introduction to Conjunctions

This lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. Conjunctions combine two or more sentences or phrases into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.

This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs, and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish coordination from subordination.

Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence the meaning of the conjunction.

Coordination is a kind of syntactic structure that allows two similar constituents to act as one. For example, Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below:

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(1)
Joe dóó Louise hataał.
Joe and Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe and Louise are singing.

The verb hataał is intransitive, meaning that it can have only one argument:

(2)
Joe hataał.
Joe 3-sing.CI
Joe is singing.
(3)
*Joe Louise hataał.
Joe Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe Louise is singing.

Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people, the sentence does not make sense because the verb is intransitive. Coordination, used in (1), allows two or more phrases to act as one.

In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will need to have a plural marker in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:

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(4)
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
Joe and Louise and Kii pl-3-sing.CI
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing.

The examples above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:

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(5)
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.

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(6)
Na’ná’á biyaa góne’ dóó báhátis ’adiłt’oh.
bridge 3-under below and 3-across 3-3-shoot.P
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it.

Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:

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(7)
Kin Łánídi naashnish háálá ’áadi shaghan.
Flagstaff 1-work.I because there 1-live.NI
I work in Flagstaff because I live there.

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(8)
Kin bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ hadah ’adzííłhaal ndi t’áadoo ’ádadénih da.
house 3-to-from down 1-tumble.P but NEG RFLX-1-hurt.P NEG
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt.

The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Navajo English Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? categories that can be conjoined
dóó ‘and’/‘and then’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP
’áádóó ‘and then’ yes clause
’áko ‘so, so that, so then’ yes clause
’áko ’índa ‘when, then’ yes clause
’áko ndi ‘even so, even then’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ‘then maybe/ then probably’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ’índa ‘then only’ yes clause
doodago ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
doodaii’ ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
-go no clause, NP
háálá ‘for, because’ yes clause
-ii’ ‘and, and thereupon’ yes clause
’índa ‘and only then’ no clause
léi’ ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ yes clause
ndi ‘but’ yes clause
’azhą́…ndi ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) clause
ńt’éé’ past maybe clause
yę́ędą́ą́’ past no clause
NP
noun phrase
PP
postpositional phrase
EP
postpositional enclitic phrase

Subordination is a different way that two sentences can be combined into one. The enclitic -go attached to the first sentence subordinates it to the second:

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(9)
Shilééchąą’í bił na’nishkaadgo jooł bá ’abíńjíshhałgo yikéé’ náádiilwo’.
1-dog 3-with 1-herd.CI ball 3-for 3-1-bat.R-GO 3-after 3-run.R
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them.

The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:

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(10)
’Ádihodideesht’ih sha’shin nisingo t’áadoo ’atah haasdzíi’ da.
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble.

Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Some observations

Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).

When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)

Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.

Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.

An example search has returned 50 entries

’Awéé’ bimá bit’ah sitį́.

baby 3-mother 3-undercover 3-lying.SPN
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The baby is lying under the same covers with its mother.

’Ałk’idą́ą́’ ch’iyáán ’ ádayiilaa léi’ ła’ ’ánáádeiilyaa.

long.ago food pl-3-3-make.P Indef. some again-pl-3-1dpl-make.P

’Ałk’idą́ą́’ tł’oh naadą́ą́’ dant’į́įhgo łį́į́’ doodaii’ béégashii da há hadahwiił’éés ńt’éé’.

long.ago grass corn 3-ripen.I-GO horse or cow etc. 4-for 3-stomp.I past

’áádóó

CONJ

’Áłchíní hastą́ą́ binidááhaidóó deigo hodees’áago t’áá ’ałtso da’ółta’go yá’át’ééh.

children six 3-year.P-from up areal-extend.NP all pl-3-study.NI-GO 3-good.N

’Ííyą́ą́dóó bik’ijį’ tsinyaagi nétį́į́ dóó ’iiłhaazh.

1-eat.P and 3-after tree-under-at.spec 1-lie.down.P and 1-sleep.P
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I ate and afterwards I lay down under the tree and slept.

’Ííłta’ dóó ’iiłghaazh.

1-read.P CONJ 1-sleep.P

-’ąą

-dą́ą́’

past time, also used in conditionals, marking the antecedent

-nánii

Ch’ééh jiyáán náshdį́į́h ’áádóó tó náshdlį́į́h.

watermelon again-1-eat.R then water again-1-drink.R

ch’óóshdą́ą́dą́ą́’

Chahash’ohjí ch’ínááhoníshóó’.

brush arbor-JÍ out-again-area-sweep.R
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I swept the brush arbor again.

Chidí binaashnish yę́ę ’áádóó t’óó ni’ kwíishłaa.

vehicle 3-1-work.CI past and.then just stop 1-stop.P
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I was working on the vehicle and then I just let it be.

Chidí naat’a’íísh hooghankáá’góó ch’ínísaal ’éí doodaii’ dziłghą́ą́’góó daats’í?

airplane house-over-along over-3-fly.P TOP or mountain-attached-along perhaps

Chidí t’ą́ą́’ nináníłbą́ą́z.

car just 3-1-reparked.R
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I backed in the car again.

Chidí k’adę́ę yichxǫǫh lágo naháłnii’.

car almost 3-fall-apart.I altered 3-1-buy.P
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I bought a car just as it was about to fall apart.

Damóogo ’áłah ’aleeh ’áko ’áadi nihaadíínááł.

Sunday 3-gather 3-be so there-at 1-Pl-to-2-arrive.F

daohshóóh

pl-3DO-2dpl-brush/comb.it.I

daoohgish

pl-3DO-2dpl-make.one.cut.in.it.I

dazhdííłhį́į́’

pl-3DO-4dpl-melt.it.P

Deenásts’aa’ sh naaldloosh ńt’éé’ shimá siiłtsą́, yiniinaa násineestsxas.

ram 1-with 3-trot.CI past 1-mother 1-3-see.P 3-because 1-3-whip.P

deididínóołkał

pl-3DO-3dpl-start.to.herd.them.(animals).F

deiitł’ó

pl-3DO-1dpl-weave.it.I

didííłhįh

3DO-2-melt.it.F

diididoołjah

3DO-3-start.fire.F

Diné bikéyah bikáa’gi łáhágóó ninádahałtį́įh łeh.

Navajo 3-land 3-on-at a.few.places areal-rain.I usually

Dííshą’ látsíní háádę́ę́’ naa ninídee’?

this-Q bracelet where-from 2-to 3-arrive.PlO.P

Doo deighánígóó łeeyi’ ’azhnígeed.

NEG far ground-inside 3-4-dig.P

Gah bik’ee’ taah yí’áhígóó ’eesbąs.

rabbit foot water 3-into1-drive.Prog

Ha’át’éegishą’ nich’ah nííní’ą́?

where-at-Q 2-hat 3-2-set.down.SRO.P
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Where did you leave your hat? Where did you set your hat down?

Haa’í shą’ neezgai?

where Q 3-hurt.N

hadeiilgizh

pl-3DO-1dpl-cut.it.out.P

haidoołtééł

3DO-3-carry.him/her.up.out.of.something.F

háagi

háádóó

Háíshą’ tsinaa’eeł ’áyiilaa?

who-Q boat 3-3-make.P

Háádę́ę’shą’ díí ch’ah nizhóní léi’ naa yílts’id?

where-from-Q DEM hat 3-beautiful.NI INDEF 2-to 3-move.air.SRO.P

jishóóh

3DO-4-brush/comb.it.I

Joołísh ’atiin tsé’naa ’ahííníłhan doodaii’ daats’í ’anít’i’ báhátis ’ahííníłhan?

ball-Q road across 3-2-throw.P or perhjaps fence 3-over 3-2-throw.P

Kintah góyaa yishááł ńt’éé’ béeso ńdiiłtsooz

areal-down 1-go.Prog past money 3-1-pick.FFO.P

Mary łį́į́’ b yá’át’ééh.

Mary horse 3-with 3-good.NI

Nihimásání ha’át’íí lá yinízin?

1dpl-grandmother what LÁ 3-3-want.NI

Niísh ’ałdó’ t’áá ’ákwíinínízin?

2-Q also just 2-think.so.NI

Shimá sání t’áá shídin ’ííyá.

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My grandmother went away without me.

T’ah doo sha’áłchíní haleehę́ędą́ą́’ doozhǫǫgo shibéeso (sibéeso) hólǫ́ǫ́ ńt’éé’.

still NEG 1-children 3-be.born.I-past satisfactory 1-money 3-exist.NI past
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Before I acquired a family I had plenty of money.

Tsé taah héjaa’go tó ńlínígíí bikáá’ ha’naa shił ni’ílwod.

stone water-into 3-1-put-.P-GO stream 3-on area-across 1-with 3-run.P
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Putting stones into the water, I drove across the stream.

Tsinaabąąs bee nida’abąąsgo shi’dizhchį́.

wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I-GO 1-pass-born.P

yíłhį́į́’

3DO-1-melt.it.(snow).P

Łį́į́’ bik’i na’ashnííł.

horse 3-on 3-1-unsaddle.I