Introduction to Conjunctions

This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.

This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.

Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.

Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:

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(1)
Joe dóó Louise hataał.
Joe and Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe and Louise are singing.

The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:

(2)
Joe hataał.
Joe 3-sing.CI
Joe is singing.
(3)
*Joe Louise hataał.
Joe Louise 3-sing.CI
Joe Louise is singing.

Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.

In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:

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(4)
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
Joe and Louise and Kii pl-3-sing.CI
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing.

The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:

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(5)
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ dóó tsédáajį’ ninish’na’.
cave-from and cliff-to 1-crawl.P
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff.

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(6)
Na’ná’á biyaa góne’ dóó báhátis ’adiłt’oh.
bridge 3-under below and 3-across 3-3-shoot.P
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it.

Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:

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(7)
Kin Łánídi naashnish háálá ’áadi shaghan.
Flagstaff 1-work.I because there 1-live.NI
I work in Flagstaff because I live there.

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(8)
Kin bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ hadah ’adzííłhaal ndi t’áadoo ’ádadénih da.
house 3-to-from down 1-tumble.P but NEG RFLX-1-hurt.P NEG
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt.

The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).

Navajo English Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? categories that can be conjoined
dóó ‘and’/‘and then’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP
’áádóó ‘and then’ yes clause
’áko ‘so, so that, so then’ yes clause
’áko ’índa ‘when, then’ yes clause
’áko ndi ‘even so, even then’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ‘then maybe/ then probably’ yes clause
’áko shį́į́ ’índa ‘then only’ yes clause
doodago ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
doodaii’ ‘or’ yes clause, NP, PP, EP?
-go no clause, NP
háálá ‘for, because’ yes clause
-ii’ ‘and, and thereupon’ yes clause
’índa ‘and only then’ no clause
léi’ ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ yes clause
ndi ‘but’ yes clause
’azhą́…ndi ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) clause
ńt’éé’ past maybe clause
yę́ędą́ą́’ past no clause
NP
noun phrase
PP
postpositional phrase
EP
postpositional enclitic phrase

With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.

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(9)
Shilééchąą’í bił na’nishkaadgo jooł bá ’abíńjíshhałgo yikéé’ náádiilwo’.
1-dog 3-with 1-herd.CI ball 3-for 3-1-bat.R-GO 3-after 3-run.R
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them.

The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:

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(10)
’Ádihodideesht’ih sha’shin nisingo t’áadoo ’atah haasdzíi’ da.
Joe dóó Louise dóó Kii dahataał.
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble.

Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].

Some observations

Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).

When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)

Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.

Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.

An example search has returned 50 entries

’Asdzą́ą́ ’éí ’ashkii ha’át’íí yeiní’ą́?

woman TOP boy what 3-to-3-3-move.SRO.P
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What did the woman give the boy?

’Ashą́ą́ nít’ę́ę́’ t’áadoo hooyání shaa ’ílwod.

1-eat.Prog past suddenly 1-for 3-drive.P

’Ashkii bi’éé’ hazhó’ó ’ayíyiischid dóó ’ólta’ góne’ yah ’ííyá.

boy 3-shirt nicely 3-3-tuck.in.P and 3-go.P

’Azhé’é ’éí chízh nííni’yį́ ’áádóó hastiin bíká ’adoolwoł.

INDEF.father TOP wood 3-3.haul.complete.LPB.P AND man 3-after 3-run.F

The father is chopping wood and the other man is helping him.

’ałk’idą́ą́’

’Áłah ’aleehdi hastiin léi’ t’óó yááłtih yiits’a’.

meeting-at man INDEF just 3-talk.Prog 3-be.heard.I

-iih

-tsé

bik’ídidiidis

3DO-1dpl-wrap.it.around.it.F

bik’ídiidis

3DO-1dpl-wrap.it.around.it.I

Chidí łizhinígíí doodago łigaaígíí daats’í nahideeshnih?

car black-nom or white-nom perhaps 3-2-buy.F

Chidí bitooʼ ʼásdįįdgo doo diitsʼį́į da dooleeł.

truck 3-gas 3-exhaust.NP-GO NEG 3-start.I NEG 3-become.F
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If the truck runs out of gas, it will not start.

Da’ dibé nee hólǫ́?

Q sheep 2-with 3-exist.NI

Da’iidą́ągo sitsilí bilééchąą yázhí náneeskaadí ła’ yá yiidiyiisdláád dóó yaa yiizhjaa’.

1Pl-eat.I-GO 1-brother 3-puppy tortilla some 3-tear.P and 3-to 3-3-give.P
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While we were eating my little brother tore off pieces of tortilla and gave them (one after another) to his puppy.

dadołhį́į́h

pl-3DO-2dpl-melt.it.I

dajiłbéézh

pl-3DO-4dpl-boil.it.I

dashoołbéézh

pl-3DO-2dpl-boil.it.P

Dá’ák’ehdi nídahodoohgoł.

cornfield-at pl-3-2-hoe.F

de, deg

Dichin nínízin ya’?

hungry 2-want.NI Q

diilyį́į́’

3DO-1dpl-melt.it.P

Díidí háísh bichidí?

this who-Q 3-car

Díigi ’át’éegoósh ’ájiił’įįh?

this-at 3-be-GO-Q SUP-4-do.P

Díí hastiin tł’ééjí hataałgo bee béého’doolzįįd.

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This man became famous as a Night Chant singer.

Díí nanise’ hiná.

this plant 3-alive.NI

Díí tł’éé’ t’áá ká dóola dá’ák’eólyeed lágo.

this night NEG bull into.field-3-run.O hope.not LÁGO

Doo ’áłah deiidleeh da.

NEG together pl-1dpl-meet.pl.I NEG

Doo yéé shaa yánłti’go ndiséts’ą́’į́.

NEG fear 1-to 2-talk.DI-GO 2-1-hear.P

Haa’íshą’ neezgai?

where-Q 3-hurt.N

hadaoołgizh

pl-3DO-2dpl-cut.it.out.P

haiigeed

3DO-1dpl-dig.it.out.P

Háadi lá lį́į́’ naakai?

where-at Q horse 3-walk.pl.I

Háí lá Naatsis’áángóó náádeesdzá?

who-Q discover Navajo.Mountain.GOO again-3-go.F

Neeznáadigóó ’oolkiłgo ’áłah ’aleeh daaní.

ten.at-toward time-GO meeting pl-4-say.NI

Nighéí na’ashch’ąą’ígíí níil’į́.

over.there painting-ÍGÍÍ 3-2-du.look.I
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We (us two) are looking at that painting.

Shá bíighah na’ashkǫ́ǫ́’.

sun proportionate 1-swim.CI

Shighan bich’ą́ą́h łeeshch’ih désas.

1-hogan 3-protect ashes 3-1-strew.P
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I strewed ashes to protect my hogan.

Shikee’ ’ániidígo biniinaa shikee’ bąąh tó’diisool.

1-shoe recently because 1-foot 3-on 3-blister.form.P
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Because my shoes are new, they made a water blister on my foot.

Shilééch’ąą’í bits’ąą ńdínésht’į́į́’.

1-dog 3-away.from 1-hide.P

Shimá sání t’áá shídin ’ííyá.

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My grandmother went away without me.

Shimá tanaashgiizh ’áyiilaago ’áádóó deiilts’ee’.

1-mother pudding 3-make.P-GO and.then pl-3-1dpl-eat.MM.P
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My mom made pudding and then we ate it.

Shiye’, t’áadoo nikídíltałí.

1-son NEG 2-stomp.IR-Í

T’iis bąąh nidaohna’.

cottonwood 3-on pl-2dpl-climb.I

T'áá kwe’é shiba’ sínídáa doleeł.

just right.here 1-waiting.for 2-sit.SPN FUT
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You are to sit right here and wait for me.

Tsinaabąąs bee nida’abąąs yę́ędą́ą́’ shi’dizhchį́.

wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I past 1-pass-born.P

Tł’éédą́ą́’ mą’ii léi’ shidááh gónaa ch’élwod.

last-night coyote there 1-before areal-around 3-move-rapidly.P
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Last night a coyote crossed my path.

Tł’éédą́ą́’ ni’shéłhaazh.

night-past 1-rest.P

yididínóołkał

3DO-3-start.to.herd.them.(animals).F

Yiską́ągo ’azee’ííłíní niwoo’ yideeshnish doo.

tomorrow doctor 2-teeth 3-2-work.F will.be
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Tomorrow the doctor will begin working on your teeth.

ʼAwéé chʼídeeldloʼ; chʼiyáán bá ʼádaʼdoołííł dóó bá niʼdaʼdoonih.

baby 3-laugh.P food 3-for pl-3-2dpl-prepare.F and 3-for pl-3-2dpl-distribute.F