Introduction to Conjunctions
This Saad Dílzin lexicon illustrates various conjunctions, words like dóó (and), doodaii (or), ndi (but), háálá (because), and others. The term we use for a word that holds constituents together is conjunction (zaatą’ii). Conjunctions combine two or more sentences, phrases, or words into a single sentence or phrase. Each conjunction has its own meaning.
This lexicon is mainly focused on coordination, but it includes other expressions that can connect two sentences (like yę́ędą́ą́’). It is sometimes difficult to distinguish conjunctions from adverbs.
Sometimes adverbs appear with conjunctions, and they influence or modify the meaning of the conjunction.
Joe and Louise are conjoined in the sentence below to make a single phrase:
The verb hataał, is intransitive, meaning that it can only have one argument:
Joe | hataał. |
Joe | 3-sing.CI |
Joe is singing. |
*Joe | Louise | hataał. |
Joe | Louise | 3-sing.CI |
Joe Louise is singing. |
Example (3) is only grammatical if Joe Louise is the name of a particular person. If we take the two names to refer to two different people then we have to connect them with the conjunction dóó (and). This is what happens in (1). When dóó is in the middle you know there are two people.
In Navajo, more than two phrases can be conjoined, but the verb will have the plural marker da in it when three or more actors are involved in the event being described:
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. |
Joe | and | Louise | and | Kii | pl-3-sing.CI |
Joe, Louise, and Kii are singing. |
The examples, (1) and (4), above include conjunctions of noun phrases. Other phrases can be conjoined in the same way. Here are examples with postpositional enclitic phrases:
Tsé’áándę́ę́’ | dóó | tsédáajį’ | ninish’na’. |
cave-from | and | cliff-to | 1-crawl.P |
I crawled out of the cave and to the edge of the cliff. |
Na’ná’á | biyaa | góne’ | dóó | báhátis | ’adiłt’oh. | |
bridge | 3-under | below | and | 3-across | 3-3-shoot.P | |
S/he shot them (e.g., arrows) over the bridge and under it. |
Sentences can also be coordinated, and several different conjunctions can be used:
Kin | Łánídi | naashnish | háálá | ’áadi | shaghan. |
Flagstaff | 1-work.I | because | there | 1-live.NI | |
I work in Flagstaff because I live there. |
Kin | bighą́ą́’dę́ę́’ | hadah | ’adzííłhaal | ndi | t’áadoo | ’ádadénih | da. |
house | 3-to-from | down | 1-tumble.P | but | NEG | RFLX-1-hurt.P | NEG |
I tumbled off the housetop but I didn’t get hurt. |
The table below shows the expressions in this lexicon, except that the complementizer -go is listed in the Adverbs lexicon [link]. This list appears in Young & Morgan (1987:23-24).
Navajo | English | Is the expression a coordinating conjunction? | categories that can be conjoined |
---|---|---|---|
dóó | ‘and’/‘and then’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP |
’áádóó | ‘and then’ | yes | clause |
’áko | ‘so, so that, so then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ’índa | ‘when, then’ | yes | clause |
’áko ndi | ‘even so, even then’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ | ‘then maybe/ then probably’ | yes | clause |
’áko shį́į́ ’índa | ‘then only’ | yes | clause |
doodago | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
doodaii’ | ‘or’ | yes | clause, NP, PP, EP? |
-go | no | clause, NP | |
háálá | ‘for, because’ | yes | clause |
-ii’ | ‘and, and thereupon’ | yes | clause |
’índa | ‘and only then’ | no | clause |
léi’ | ‘because’, ‘inasmuch as’ or ‘in view of the fact that’ | yes | clause |
ndi | ‘but’ | yes | clause |
’azhą́…ndi | ‘even though, despite the fact that, notwithstanding’ | yes (or else ’azhą́ is an adverb and ndi is a conjunction) | clause |
ńt’éé’ | past | maybe | clause |
yę́ędą́ą́’ | past | no | clause |
- NP
- noun phrase
- PP
- postpositional phrase
- EP
- postpositional enclitic phrase
With coordination, two phrases have the same status. With subordination, one clause modifies the other. In this way, they are different. When there are two clauses and -go appears in the first, the two become one sentence. Then the first clause modifies the second.
Shilééchąą’í | bił | na’nishkaadgo | jooł | bá | ’abíńjíshhałgo | yikéé’ | náádiilwo’. |
1-dog | 3-with | 1-herd.CI | ball | 3-for | 3-1-bat.R-GO | 3-after | 3-run.R |
When I’m out herding with my dog I bat fly balls for him and he chases them. |
The first clause modifies the second by describing its reference time. A range of interpretations for -go is possible. In the following example, the -go clause is understood as describing the cause for the main clause:
’Ádihodideesht’ih | sha’shin | nisingo | t’áadoo | ’atah | haasdzíi’ | da. |
Joe | dóó | Louise | dóó | Kii | dahataał. | |
I didn’t say anything because I thought I might get myself into trouble. |
Examples of clauses subordinated using -go can be found in the Adverbs lexicon [link].
Some observations
Our understanding is that -go is a complementizer, sometimes called subordinating conjunction in traditional grammar (we follow Schauber 1975 [link] in concluding this).
When clauses are coordinated, a conjunction appears in place of -go. Ńt’éé’ can also take the place of -go. We take it that it can be either a conjunction or a complementizer. (Occasionally, it can appear along with -go, suggesting that it could be an adverb as well!)
Some of the expressions in this lexicon can only appear when -go appears on the first clause. These expressions are likely to be adverbs.
Concerning ’azhą́…ndi, we have already concluded that ndi is a conjunction. We could analyze ’azhą́ as an adverb, or we could consider ’azhą́…ndi to be a two-part conjunction, similar to either…or.
An example search has returned 50 entries
’Asdzą́ą́ ’éí ’ashkii ha’át’íí yeiní’ą́?
woman TOP boy what 3-to-3-3-move.SRO.P’Ashą́ą́ nít’ę́ę́’ t’áadoo hooyání shaa ’ílwod.
1-eat.Prog past suddenly 1-for 3-drive.P’Ashkii bi’éé’ hazhó’ó ’ayíyiischid dóó ’ólta’ góne’ yah ’ííyá.
boy 3-shirt nicely 3-3-tuck.in.P and 3-go.P’Azhé’é ’éí chízh nííni’yį́ ’áádóó hastiin bíká ’adoolwoł.
INDEF.father TOP wood 3-3.haul.complete.LPB.P AND man 3-after 3-run.FThe father is chopping wood and the other man is helping him.
bookmark’ałk’idą́ą́’
’Áłah ’aleehdi hastiin léi’ t’óó yááłtih yiits’a’.
meeting-at man INDEF just 3-talk.Prog 3-be.heard.I-tsé
bik’ídiidis
3DO-1dpl-wrap.it.around.it.IChidí łizhinígíí doodago łigaaígíí daats’í nahideeshnih?
car black-nom or white-nom perhaps 3-2-buy.FChidí bitooʼ ʼásdįįdgo doo diitsʼį́į da dooleeł.
truck 3-gas 3-exhaust.NP-GO NEG 3-start.I NEG 3-become.FDa’iidą́ągo sitsilí bilééchąą yázhí náneeskaadí ła’ yá yiidiyiisdláád dóó yaa yiizhjaa’.
1Pl-eat.I-GO 1-brother 3-puppy tortilla some 3-tear.P and 3-to 3-3-give.Pdadołhį́į́h
pl-3DO-2dpl-melt.it.Idajiłbéézh
pl-3DO-4dpl-boil.it.Idashoołbéézh
pl-3DO-2dpl-boil.it.PDá’ák’ehdi nídahodoohgoł.
cornfield-at pl-3-2-hoe.FDichin nínízin ya’?
hungry 2-want.NI Qdiilyį́į́’
3DO-1dpl-melt.it.PDíidí háísh bichidí?
this who-Q 3-carDíigi ’át’éegoósh ’ájiił’įįh?
this-at 3-be-GO-Q SUP-4-do.PDíí hastiin tł’ééjí hataałgo bee béého’doolzįįd.
Díí tł’éé’ t’áá ká dóola dá’ák’eólyeed lágo.
this night NEG bull into.field-3-run.O hope.not LÁGODoo ’áłah deiidleeh da.
NEG together pl-1dpl-meet.pl.I NEGDoo yéé shaa yáníłti’go ndiséts’ą́’į́.
NEG fear 1-to 2-talk.DI-GO 2-1-hear.PHaa’íshą’ neezgai?
where-Q 3-hurt.Nhadaoołgizh
pl-3DO-2dpl-cut.it.out.Phaiigeed
3DO-1dpl-dig.it.out.PHáadi lá lį́į́’ naakai?
where-at Q horse 3-walk.pl.IHáí lá Naatsis’áángóó náádeesdzá?
who-Q discover Navajo.Mountain.GOO again-3-go.FNeeznáadigóó ’oolkiłgo ’áłah ’aleeh daaní.
ten.at-toward time-GO meeting pl-4-say.NINighéí na’ashch’ąą’ígíí níil’į́.
over.there painting-ÍGÍÍ 3-2-du.look.IShá bíighah na’ashkǫ́ǫ́’.
sun proportionate 1-swim.CIShighan bich’ą́ą́h łeeshch’ih désas.
1-hogan 3-protect ashes 3-1-strew.PShikee’ ’ániidígo biniinaa shikee’ bąąh tó’diisool.
1-shoe recently because 1-foot 3-on 3-blister.form.PShilééch’ąą’í bits’ąą ńdínésht’į́į́’.
1-dog 3-away.from 1-hide.PShimá tanaashgiizh ’áyiilaago ’áádóó deiilts’ee’.
1-mother pudding 3-make.P-GO and.then pl-3-1dpl-eat.MM.PShiye’, t’áadoo nikídíltałí.
1-son NEG 2-stomp.IR-ÍT’iis bąąh nidaohna’.
cottonwood 3-on pl-2dpl-climb.IT'áá kwe’é shiba’ sínídáa doleeł.
just right.here 1-waiting.for 2-sit.SPN FUTTsinaabąąs bee nida’abąąs yę́ędą́ą́’ shi’dizhchį́.
wagon 3-with pl-3-drive.I past 1-pass-born.PTł’éédą́ą́’ mą’ii léi’ shidááh gónaa ch’élwod.
last-night coyote there 1-before areal-around 3-move-rapidly.PTł’éédą́ą́’ ni’shéłhaazh.
night-past 1-rest.Pyididínóołkał
3DO-3-start.to.herd.them.(animals).Fstart to herd them (animals), 3rd person
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